Back in March 2026, social media and the fringes of the internet exploded with claims that Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu had died during Iranian strikes. The story caught fire almost instantly—confusion and wild speculation followed. But with all the noise, official sources stepped in, sharing verified photos and statements. Netanyahu was still in Israel. So where did all this start? It kicked off after Iran launched strikes on Israel. They were hitting back after the death of their Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, who’d been killed in a joint US-Israel operation. Iranian state media added fuel to the fire, saying Netanyahu’s fate was “unclear†and hinting he might be dead. That tiny bit of ambiguity was all it took for the internet to run wild. Social media amped things up. People posted unverified claims that Netanyahu had been assassinated. Others started picking apart flight radar data, insisting he’d secretly flown to Germany on his official plane, “Wings of Zion.†Then there was the fact that Netanyahu didn’t show up live on camera for a stretch. His absence only made people more suspicious, even though his office kept releasing official updates. It was a perfect storm: rumors spreading faster than facts. Eventually, Israel’s Government Press Office, along with other official sources, tried to slam the brakes on the gossip. They put out statements and photos of Netanyahu in Tel Aviv. He kept making public updates about the conflict, too. But because he’d been out of sight for a bit, the rumors already had a head start. People kept speculating. It’s not hard to see why the story spread so fast. Tension was sky-high after Khamenei’s killing and Iran’s retaliation. Netanyahu’s absence from live broadcasts left a vacuum. On top of that, both Iran and Israel have a long history of using information—and misinformation—as part of their strategy. When everyone’s playing mind games, figuring out the truth gets tricky. Plus, sensational fake news always seems to go viral before the real story catches up. Iran’s move to call Netanyahu’s status “unclear†probably wasn’t an accident. In wartime, confusion is a weapon—it throws the other side off balance. Meanwhile, Israel played it safe with their communications, worried about security. Ironically, that caution gave the rumors even more room to spread. The fallout was real. At home, news of a leader’s death rattles people and shakes morale. Abroad, allies and enemies pay attention—and sometimes react—before the facts are clear. For journalists, the whole episode was a wake-up call about how quickly falsehoods can take over, and why fact-checking matters. When you step back, these rumors about Netanyahu’s death are a sharp reminder of just how fragile truth is during a crisis. Misinformation shapes what people believe, stirs up politics, and chips away at trust. The takeaway’s simple—check before you share, find the balance between openness and security, and don’t take everything at face value. In war, the first thing to go is often the truth. This whole mess showed just how easily stories get twisted for political gain. Before: In March 2026, social media platforms and fringe outlets were flooded with claims that Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu had died during Iranian strikes. The rumors spread rapidly, creating confusion and speculation worldwide. Yet, official sources and verified images confirmed that Netanyahu remained in Israel. This incident underscores the dangers of misinformation during geopolitical conflicts. The spark for these rumors came after Iran launched retaliatory strikes against Israel following the death of its Supreme Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, in a joint US-Israel operation. Iranian state media suggested that Netanyahu’s fate was “unclear,†hinting he might have been killed. This ambiguity was enough to ignite a wave of speculation online. Social media played a central role in amplifying the false claims. Unverified posts alleged Netanyahu had been assassinated, while misinterpretations of flight radar data suggested he had fled to Germany aboard his official aircraft, “Wings of Zion.†His temporary absence from live appearances fueled suspicion, even though official statements continued to be released. The viral nature of these posts demonstrated how quickly misinformation can overshadow verified news. Israel’s Government Press Office and other official channels eventually countered the rumors with statements and images confirming Netanyahu’s safety. Verified photos showed him in Tel Aviv, and he continued issuing updates on the conflict. However, the delay in live appearances left space for speculation to grow unchecked. Several factors explain why the rumors spread so swiftly. Geopolitical tension was already high due to Khamenei’s death and Iran’s retaliation. An information vacuum emerged from Netanyahu’s absence in live broadcasts. Propaganda warfare further complicated matters, as both Iran and Israel have historically used information strategically, making truth harder to discern. Finally, digital virality ensured that sensational claims traveled faster than official corrections. Iran’s suggestion that Netanyahu’s fate was “unclear†may have been deliberate. In wartime, sowing confusion can weaken morale and destabilize opponents. Meanwhile, Israel’s cautious communication strategy, intended to protect security, inadvertently allowed rumors to flourish. The implications of these false reports were significant. Domestically, claims about a leader’s death can disrupt national morale. Internationally, allies and adversaries may react to misinformation, heightening tensions. For the media, the incident highlighted the urgent need for fact-checking and responsible journalism. Ultimately, the Netanyahu death rumors serve as a reminder of the fragility of truth in times of crisis. They illustrate how misinformation can shape perceptions, influence geopolitics, and erode trust. The lessons are clear: verify before sharing, balance transparency with security, and cultivate critical consumption of information. In the chaos of war, truth is often the first casualty, and this episode demonstrates how narratives can be twisted for political purposes.
Prepare for competitive exams with free mock tests, study materials, previous year papers, and expert tips. Boost your success in UPSC, UPPSC, RAS, BPSC, MPPSC, UKPSC, SSC, Banking, and more.
Tuesday, 3 March 2026
Benjamin Netanyahu Death Rumors
Monday, 23 February 2026
Energy Wars: Oil, Diplomacy, and Geopolitical Rivalries
"An in-depth analysis of oil diplomacy’s role in shaping wars, alliances, and global power, and its evolving future in the energy transition."
Oil diplomacy is the strategic use of petroleum resources and energy relations to shape international politics. It has influenced wars, alliances, and economic development for over a century. Even as the world transitions toward renewables, oil remains a central pillar of global power.
Colonial Era: Britain’s control of Persian oil in 1908 marked the start of petroleum’s geopolitical role.
World War II: Energy needs drove military campaigns, from Germany’s push into the Caucasus to Japan’s expansion into Southeast Asia.
Post-War Order: The US-Saudi partnership, established in 1945, became a cornerstone of global oil diplomacy.
Oil Diplomacy in Action
OPEC and Collective Bargaining
- Founded in 1960, OPEC empowered producers to coordinate supply.
- The 1973 oil embargo showed how petroleum could be weaponized, reshaping Western foreign policy.
US-Saudi Relations
- Security guarantees in exchange for oil stability have sustained this partnership.
-Despite tensions, the relationship remains vital for global energy markets.
Russia’s Energy Leverage
- Russia uses oil and gas exports as tools of influence, especially in Europe.
- The Ukraine crisis exposed Europe’s dependence on Russian energy.
India’s Balancing Act
- With over 85% of oil imported, India’s diplomacy focuses on diversification.
- It buys from the Middle East, Russia, and the US, balancing autonomy with global pressures.
Contemporary Challenges
- Energy Transition: Renewables are rising, but oil still underpins global trade and security.
- Climate Politics: Oil-rich states face pressure to decarbonize while maintaining economic stability.
- Geopolitical Rivalries: Control of shipping routes like the Strait of Hormuz remains a flashpoint.
Future Scenarios: Oil Diplomacy in 2050
- Diversified Energy Mix: Renewables, hydrogen, and nuclear will reduce oil’s dominance, but petroleum will still matter for aviation, shipping, and petrochemicals.
- New Power Centers: Countries leading in green hydrogen or battery technology may replace oil exporters as energy superpowers.
- Strategic Reserves: Oil may shift from daily trade to emergency stockpiles, used as a geopolitical insurance policy.
- Hybrid Diplomacy: Future energy diplomacy will blend oil, gas, renewables, and technology partnerships, making energy security more complex.
- Climate-Linked Alliances: Nations may form blocs not just around oil supply but around carbon neutrality goals, reshaping traditional energy alliances.
Conclusion
Oil diplomacy has been a defining force in global politics for over a century. While the energy transition is underway, petroleum will continue to shape geopolitics well into the mid-21st century. The future will likely see a hybrid form of energy diplomacy, where oil remains relevant but shares the stage with renewables, hydrogen, and advanced technologies. Nations that adapt to this evolving landscape will secure both economic resilience and geopolitical influence.
Tag:upsc exam, upsc, competitive exam, upsc civil services, upsc preparation, upsc syllabus, how to prepare for upsc exam, upsc exam strategy, upsc exam eligibility criteria, sample answers for upsc, uppsc, bpsc,mpcs mains, world history, international relations
Industrialisation and Indian Youth Culture
Industrialisation in India has profoundly reshaped the lives of young people. Once tied to agriculture and crafts, Indian youth now pursue careers in industry, services, and technology. IT hubs in Bangalore and Hyderabad, along with startups and entrepreneurship, reflect new aspirations for innovation and independence. Migration from rural areas to cities fuels urbanisation, creating cosmopolitan lifestyles while challenging traditional values. The result is a hybrid identity—modern, ambitious, and globally connected, yet deeply rooted in heritage and family expectations.
Industrialisation has profoundly shaped the lives and identities of Indian youth. Once rooted in agriculture and artisanal crafts, young people today increasingly pursue careers in industry, services, and technology. The rise of IT hubs in cities like Bangalore and Hyderabad has created a globally connected workforce, while entrepreneurship and startups reflect new aspirations for innovation and independence.
Migration is a key consequence of industrialisation. Rural youth move to urban centers in search of opportunities, leading to rapid urbanisation and the growth of cosmopolitan cities. This shift has encouraged nuclear family structures and exposed young people to diverse lifestyles, though it has also created challenges such as overcrowding and cultural disconnection from rural traditions.
Industrialisation has also reshaped values. It promotes individualism, meritocracy, and consumer culture, yet youth remain tied to traditional expectations of family and community. The result is a hybrid identity—modern in outlook but rooted in heritage. Globalisation, an extension of industrialisation, further influences youth culture through Western pop culture and digital platforms, while Indian youth simultaneously export Bollywood, yoga, and cuisine worldwide.
In conclusion, industrialisation has redefined Indian youth culture, creating opportunities and challenges. It has produced a generation that is ambitious, globally connected, and modern, yet still deeply anchored in tradition.
Tag:upsc exam, upsc, competitive exam, upsc civil services, upsc preparation, upsc syllabus, how to prepare for upsc exam, upsc exam strategy, upsc exam eligibility criteria, sample answers for upsc, uppsc, bpsc,mpcs mains, world history, international relations
औद्योगीकरण और भारतीय युवाओं की संस्कृति
भारत में औद्योगीकरण ने राष्ट्र की अर्थव्यवस्था, समाज और संस्कृति को गहराई से प्रभावित किया है। इसकी जड़ें औपनिवेशिक काल में हैं, लेकिन स्वतंत्रता के बाद इसके प्रभाव सबसे अधिक दिखाई दिए, विशेषकर युवाओं के जीवन में। आज भारतीय युवा परंपरा और आधुनिकता के संगम पर खड़े हैं, जिनकी आकांक्षाएँ और मूल्य औद्योगीकरण और वैश्वीकरण से गहराई से प्रभावित हैं।
औद्योगीकरण ने युवाओं के करियर विकल्पों को बदल दिया है। पहले कृषि और हस्तशिल्प प्रमुख आजीविका थे, लेकिन उद्योग और सेवा क्षेत्र के विकास ने युवाओं को शहरी, औद्योगिक और तकनीकी करियर की ओर आकर्षित किया। बेंगलुरु और हैदराबाद जैसे आईटी केंद्रों ने एक नई पीढ़ी तैयार की है जो स्वयं को वैश्विक कार्यबल का हिस्सा मानती है।
प्रवास भी इस परिवर्तन का परिणाम है। ग्रामीण युवा महानगरों की ओर अवसरों की तलाश में जाते हैं, जिससे शहरीकरण तेज हुआ और परिवार संरचना में बदलाव आया। संयुक्त परिवारों की जगह परमाणु परिवारों का चलन बढ़ा और युवाओं को विविध जीवनशैलियों का अनुभव मिला।
औद्योगीकरण ने मूल्यों में भी तनाव पैदा किया है। यह व्यक्तिवाद और उपभोक्ता संस्कृति को बढ़ावा देता है, जबकि युवा अब भी परिवार और समुदाय की पारंपरिक अपेक्षाओं से जुड़े रहते हैं। परिणामस्वरूप एक मिश्रित पहचान उभरी है—आधुनिक सोच के साथ-साथ परंपराओं में जड़ें जमाए हुए।
वैश्वीकरण ने इस प्रक्रिया को और गहरा किया है। पश्चिमी पॉप संस्कृति और डिजिटल प्लेटफॉर्म युवाओं को प्रभावित करते हैं, वहीं भारतीय युवा बॉलीवुड, योग और भोजन को विश्वभर में फैलाते हैं।
निष्कर्षतः, औद्योगीकरण ने भारतीय युवाओं की संस्कृति को नया रूप दिया है। इसने अवसर और चुनौतियाँ दोनों पैदा की हैं और एक ऐसी पीढ़ी तैयार की है जो महत्वाकांक्षी, वैश्विक रूप से जुड़ी हुई और आधुनिक है, फिर भी अपनी परंपराओं में गहराई से जमी हुई है।
---
क्या आप चाहेंगे कि मैं इस निबंध को संक्षिप्त परीक्षा-उपयोगी बिंदुवार रूपरेखा में भी बदल दूँ, ताकि लिखते समय इसे आसानी से याद रखा जा सके?
Tag:upsc exam, upsc, competitive exam, upsc civil services, upsc preparation, upsc syllabus, how to prepare for upsc exam, upsc exam strategy, upsc exam eligibility criteria, sample answers for upsc, uppsc, bpsc,mpcs mains, world history, international relations
Saturday, 21 February 2026
Current affairs questions answer January 2026
Q1. What triggered the UAE–Saudi rift in Yemen?
A1. UAE withdrew troops after Saudi airstrikes on Yemen’s Mukalla port, weakening the anti-Houthi coalition.
Q2. Which global summit in January 2026 focused on stricter methane reduction targets?
A2. The Geneva Climate Talks, attended by delegates from over 100 countries.
Q3. What caused volatility in global stock markets in January 2026?
A3. Slowing growth in China and rising U.S. interest rates.
Q4. Which country advanced trade talks with the UK in January 2026?
A4. India, focusing on pharmaceuticals and IT services.
Q5. What major defense concern arose in East Asia in January 2026?
A5. North Korea’s multiple missile tests, condemned by the U.S., Japan, and South Korea.
Q6. Which organization unveiled a draft framework for AI regulation in January 2026?
A6. The European Union.
Q7. Which country’s lunar rover sent images from the Moon’s south pole in January 2026?
A7. Japan.
Tag current affairs for uppsc upsc bpsc
Thursday, 19 February 2026
Indian Polity MCQ
1.The Chief Minister of a Union Territory where such a set up exists, is appointed by the
(a)Lt, Governor
{b) Majority party in Legislature
(c) President
(d) Prime Minister
Answer: Lt. Governor
,2. In case a President dies while in office, the vice President can act as President for
maximum period of
(a) 1 years
(b) 3 months
(c) 6 months
(d) 2 years
Answer; 6 months
3.The Union Council of Ministers consists of
(a) Cabinet Ministers, Minister of State and Deputy Ministers
(b) Cabinet Ministers and Chief Ministers of the States
(c) Prime Minister
(d) Cabinet Ministers
Answer: Cabinet Ministers, Minister of State and Deputy Ministers
4.Who administers the oath of office to the Presi$ent of India before he enters upon the office ?
(a) Chief Justice I
(b) Speaker t
(c) Vice President
(d) Prime Minister
Answer: Chief Justice
5.Who among the following enjoys the rank of a Cabinet Minister of the Indian Union?
(a) None of the Above
(b) Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission
(c) Deputy Chairman, Rajya Sabha
(d) Secretary to the Government of lndia
Answer: Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commissioner
Tag:"Prepare for competitive exams with free mock tests, study materials, previous year papers, and expert tips. Boost your success in UPSC, SSC, Banking, and more."
Need for diversity in the judiciary
Need for diversity in the judiciary
A diverse judiciary is essential for legitimacy, fairness, and effective justice in pluralistic societies like India. It builds public trust by reflecting societal demographics, brings varied life experiences to reduce biases, enriches decision-making, and ensures courts better address issues affecting marginalized groups.
Key arguments include:
Legitimacy & trust — Underrepresented groups perceive the system as fairer and more inclusive.
Better rulings — Diverse perspectives challenge assumptions and lead to nuanced outcomes, especially in social justice cases.
Reduced bias — Broader backgrounds counter dominant viewpoints.
In India, the higher judiciary (Supreme Court and High Courts) remains disproportionately upper-caste, male, and majority-community dominated, despite no formal reservations for these posts (unlike in subordinate courts).
Recent data (as of early 2026):
From 2021 to January 2026, of 593 High Court appointments, only ~4% SC (26), ~2% ST (14), ~14% OBC (80), with nearly 80% from upper castes.
Women: ~14–17% in recent High Court appointments; currently ~110–130 women in High Courts (out of ~800+ sanctioned strength), and just 1–2 in the Supreme Court (out of 33–34 judges).
Religious minorities: <5–6% in higher judiciary.
Since 2018–2024/2026 periods show similar patterns: ~20% SC/ST/OBC combined in some datasets, women <15%, minorities <5%.
Supreme Court: Dominated by upper-caste Hindu men; limited SC (1–3), OBC (few), no ST, and minimal women representation.
This imbalance persists amid huge pendency (>90,000 in Supreme Court, crores overall) and low judge-population ratio.
Recent developments include:
A Private Member's Constitution (Amendment) Bill, 2026 (introduced by DMK MP P. Wilson) proposing proportional representation for SC, ST, OBC, women, and religious minorities in Supreme Court/High Court appointments, plus regional Supreme Court benches (e.g., in Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai) to improve access and address backlog/diversity.
Government efforts encourage collegiums to consider diversity, but no mandatory quotas; appointments remain collegium-driven.
Counterarguments note that merit and impartiality should remain primary, but evidence shows diversity strengthens (not weakens) these by broadening viewpoints without quotas overriding qualifications.
Overall, greater diversity—via transparent processes, wider talent outreach, and potential reforms—is vital for an equitable, credible judiciary that upholds constitutional values like equality in India's diverse society.
Tag:judiciary, diversity, representation, justice, courts, inclusion, legal system
Exploring the importance of diversity in the judiciary to ensure fairness, representation, and public trust in the legal system.
Exploring the importance of diversity in the judiciary to ensure fairness, representation, and public trust in the legal system.
A diverse judiciary is essential for legitimacy, fairness, and effective justice in pluralistic societies like India. It builds public trust by reflecting societal demographics, brings varied life experiences to reduce biases, enriches decision-making, and ensures courts better address issues affecting marginalized groups.
Key arguments include:
Legitimacy & trust — Underrepresented groups perceive the system as fairer and more inclusive.
Better rulings — Diverse perspectives challenge assumptions and lead to nuanced outcomes, especially in social justice cases.
Reduced bias — Broader backgrounds counter dominant viewpoints.
In India, the higher judiciary (Supreme Court and High Courts) remains disproportionately upper-caste, male, and majority-community dominated, despite no formal reservations for these posts (unlike in subordinate courts).
Recent data (as of early 2026):
From 2021 to January 2026, of 593 High Court appointments, only ~4% SC (26), ~2% ST (14), ~14% OBC (80), with nearly 80% from upper castes.
Women: ~14–17% in recent High Court appointments; currently ~110–130 women in High Courts (out of ~800+ sanctioned strength), and just 1–2 in the Supreme Court (out of 33–34 judges).
Religious minorities: <5–6% in higher judiciary.
Since 2018–2024/2026 periods show similar patterns: ~20% SC/ST/OBC combined in some datasets, women <15%, minorities <5%.
Supreme Court: Dominated by upper-caste Hindu men; limited SC (1–3), OBC (few), no ST, and minimal women representation.
This imbalance persists amid huge pendency (>90,000 in Supreme Court, crores overall) and low judge-population ratio.
Recent developments include:
A Private Member's Constitution (Amendment) Bill, 2026 (introduced by DMK MP P. Wilson) proposing proportional representation for SC, ST, OBC, women, and religious minorities in Supreme Court/High Court appointments, plus regional Supreme Court benches (e.g., in Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai) to improve access and address backlog/diversity.
Government efforts encourage collegiums to consider diversity, but no mandatory quotas; appointments remain collegium-driven.
Counterarguments note that merit and impartiality should remain primary, but evidence shows diversity strengthens (not weakens) these by broadening viewpoints without quotas overriding qualifications.
Overall, greater diversity—via transparent processes, wider talent outreach, and potential reforms—is vital for an equitable, credible judiciary that upholds constitutional values like equality in India's diverse society
Tag:upsc exam, upsc, competitive exam, upsc civil services, upsc preparation, upsc syllabus, how to prepare for upsc exam, upsc exam strategy, upsc exam eligibility criteria, sample answers for upsc, uppsc, bpsc,mpcs mains, world history, international relations
The Reality of Indian Democracy: Heading into 2026 Challenges and Opportunities
As of mid-February 2026, India's democracy remains a global paradox—boasting the world's largest electorate, rapid economic growth, and ambitious international positioning, while facing persistent critiques of institutional strain, backsliding tendencies, and deepening inequalities. With Prime Minister Narendra Modi's BJP consolidating power through recent state victories and gearing up for key 2026 assembly elections, the system delivers electoral participation and development scale but grapples with questions of accountability, minority protections, and corporate influence. Recent events, from the India AI Impact Summit to Republic Day reflections, highlight both aspirations and tensions.
Electoral Resilience and Dominant-Party Stability
India's democratic core—massive, largely free elections—continues to function effectively. The 2024 Lok Sabha results showed voter pushback against overreach, with the opposition INDIA bloc gaining ground. In 2025, BJP triumphs in states like Bihar reinforced its organizational edge, setting the stage for 2026 polls in multiple states and a Union Territory. Analysts describe a return to a "dominant party era," where the opposition struggles for cohesion amid BJP's post-Bihar momentum.
Public trust in electoral processes remains relatively high, bolstered by India's chairship of International IDEA's Council of Member States in 2026. Represented by Chief Election Commissioner Gyanesh Kumar, India leads under the theme "Democracy for an Inclusive, Peaceful, Resilient & Sustainable World." Initiatives like the India International Conference on Democracy and Election Management (January 2026) emphasize reimagining democracy through strong, independent electoral bodies and grassroots renewal.
Prime Minister Modi frequently asserts that "democracy delivers" in India, citing stability, speed, and scale in governance. Poverty reduction, infrastructure push, and economic reforms (updated GST, labor codes) support this, positioning India as the fastest-growing major economy despite global headwinds like US tariffs.
Global Ambitions vs. Domestic Realities
India's international profile shines brighter. At the India AI Impact Summit (inaugurated February 2026), Modi called for "democratizing AI" via the M.A.N.A.V. vision—emphasizing Moral and Ethical Systems, Accountable Governance, National Sovereignty, Accessible and Inclusive development, and Valid/Legitimate frameworks. He highlighted India's unique mix of diversity, demography, and democracy, arguing successful AI models here can scale globally, especially for the Global South.
Republic Day 2026 reflections urged deepening democracy at the "last mile"—empowering Gram Sabhas, municipalities, and cooperatives for just, sustainable progress. Internationally, India navigates multipolar ties adeptly, balancing partnerships with the US, Europe, Russia, and others.
Yet domestic critiques persist. Freedom House rates India "Partly Free," noting discriminatory policies, minority persecution (especially Muslims), and pressures on civil society, media, and critics. V-Dem labels it an "electoral autocracy," with declines in judicial independence, civic engagement, and credible elections over recent years.
Analyses point to rising inequalities, corporate-political nexus (via funding and policy influence), and hollowed-out representation. Some describe citizens reduced to voters, with legislative processes becoming formalities and checks on power weakening. The Supreme Court recently criticized state "freebie" culture amid fiscal deficits, urging focus on employment over doles.
Public discourse reflects frustration: debates over regulatory capture, caste politics, and accountability gaps. AI governance raises alarms too—official "democratizing" rhetoric contrasts with concerns over unregulated deployment enabling surveillance, hate speech, and exclusion of marginalized groups amid perceived democratic backsliding.
Key Tests Ahead in 2026
Upcoming state elections will gauge opposition revival and BJP dominance. Economic pressures from global tariffs and sanctions could spill into politics. Bold resolutions floated include institutional strengthening, media objectivity, curbing populism, and cooperative federalism.
India's rise—economic, demographic, diasporic—positions it as a counter to authoritarian models, but durability hinges on domestic institutional health. As one view puts it, the future may be "Indian" in a multipolar world, yet success depends on balancing decisiveness with accountability, growth with equity.
In 2026, Indian democracy is resilient yet strained: delivering elections and ambition globally while wrestling with inclusion, oversight, and renewal at home. Whether it self-corrects through reforms, grassroots empowerment, and vigilant engagement will define its trajectory—not just as the world's largest democracy, but as a sustainable one.
Financial Inclusion in Developing Countries
Financial inclusion means providing affordable access to essential financial services—like accounts, savings, credit, payments, and insurance—to underserved populations in developing countries. It helps reduce poverty, boost economic growth, empower women, and build resilience against shocks.
Recent Progress (as of 2024 data from World Bank's Global Findex 2025)
Globally, 79% of adults now have a financial account (up from 74% in 2021 and 51% in 2011).
In low- and middle-income economies (developing countries), 75% of adults have an account—an 80% increase since 2011.
Formal saving surged: 40% of adults in developing economies saved in a financial account in 2024 (up 16 percentage points since 2021—the fastest rise in over a decade).
Gender gap narrowed to just 5 percentage points in developing economies, with 73% of women holding accounts.
Digital payments are widespread: 61% of adults in low- and middle-income countries made or received them.
Mobile money has been transformative, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, where adoption has driven massive gains in access without traditional banks.
Remaining Challenges
Despite gains, about 1.3 billion adults remain unbanked worldwide, many in developing regions. Barriers include high costs, limited infrastructure, low financial literacy, gender norms, and exclusion of the poorest and rural populations. Many accounts remain inactive, and financial resilience is low—only about one-third can cover expenses for over two months if income is lost.
The Path Forward
Digital innovations, national strategies, and public-private partnerships continue to drive progress. The focus is shifting from mere access to meaningful usage, financial health, and outcomes like women's empowerment and climate resilience. With continued investment, developing countries can close remaining gaps and unlock broader economic potential.
Tag:upsc exam, upsc, competitive exam, upsc civil services, upsc preparation, upsc syllabus, how to prepare for upsc exam, upsc exam strategy, upsc exam eligibility criteria
Friday, 8 June 2018
Origin and Development of Guilds in Pre Mauryan and Mauryan Period
The sixth century B.C. is unique in
ancient Indian history for emergence of the sixteen mahajanapadas which led to
the transformation
of loyalty from ‘tribal organization to politico-geographical units’. The use
of writing helped in the codification of laws and in accountancy, and the
introduction of coin-age, in the collection of taxes, payments of wages and
also in the development of trade and commerce. The large scale use of iron
tools and implements contributed to a considerable development in agriculture
production, and transport. Second urbanization brought about improvements in
the socioeconomic conditions of traders and artisans. Gradually, cultivators, herdsmen,
moneylenders, traders, and artisans had come to from their own organizations to
which the state gave recognition, and their spokes men wielded considerable
authority, and were consulted by kings. As a result of close association with
the king and organization of crafts into guilds there was greater specialization
in different branches of industry, e.g., gold, copper, silver and iron objects,
earlier manufactured by the same smith, become specialized fields of different
smiths. This led to the development of crafts, trade and commerce. According to
Nigrodha jataka , some state control over guilds is known from the appointment
of Bhandagarika, with ‘judgeship over all guilds’, and also through sreshthis,
some of whom were guild heads and visited the king’s court in official or semi-official
capacity.
This
period witnessed the establishment of a vast and fairly well-knit empire with
quite a uniform and efficient system of administration. The Mauryan state
regulated trade and commerce and brought under its monopoly the mineral
resources of land and controlled to quite some extant the economic activities
of production and distribution.
The
‘Arthasastra’ fixes rates of profits on indigenous and foreign goods,
meticulously listed dutiable articles and prescribes punishment for violation
of rules including artisans, default in the delivery of goods in time.
Government officials were to keep records of trades and crafts and related
transactions and conventions of the guilds
Instead
of such restrictions, some facilities were granted by the state. The long
distance high-ways (mainly from Pataliputra to Pushkalavati, via Taxila)
constructed and maintained largely by the state facilitated greater mobility of
the people, and easy
transportation of goods and surplus production from one region to another. The
state provided the guilds with separate areas in the town for running their
trades and crafts. The guilds could make deposit with the competent agencies,
which they got back in the time of financial distress, and they also advanced
loan to merchants, as per evidence of the ‘Arthasastra’ side by side, during this
period the state collected revenue in cash or kinds. In addition to taxes in
cash, the artisans, many of whom must have been members of the guilds, also
paid taxes in the form of labour.
Tag:upsc exam, upsc, competitive exam, upsc civil services, upsc preparation, upsc syllabus, how to prepare for upsc exam, upsc exam strategy, upsc exam eligibility criteria, sample answers for upsc, uppsc, bpsc,mpcs mains
साम्राज्यवाद
lkezkT;okn
vFkZ& lkezkT;okn 'kCn dk iz;ksx
usiksfy;u cksukikVZ (1700&1815) ds le; ;wjksi esa izpfyr gqvkA
rRdkyhu 19oha lnh ds izkjaHk esa bldk vFkZ ,d ns'k }kjk nwljs jk"Vª ds
izfr vkØked O;ogkj ls yxk;k tkrk FkkA ijarq lkekU;r% ;g ,d izfØ;k gS ftlesa
fodflr iwathoknh jk"Vªksa us vfodflr jk"Vªksa ij viuk jktuhfrd&vkfFkZd
izHkqRo LFkkfir fd;kA lezkT;okn og izfØ;k gS ftlds }kjk fodflr iwathoknh
jk"Vªksa us vfodflr rFkk iwthokn iwoZ dh voLFkk esa jgs ns'kksa ij fot;
izkIr djus ,oa mu ij izHkqRo LFkkfir djus dk dne mBk;kA lkezkT;okn ml n'kk dh
vksj ladsr djrk gS ftlesa fotsrk iwathoknh ns'k vius jktuhfrd ,oa vkfFkZd
izHkqRo dh LFkkiuk foftr ns'k ij djrk gSA
Û mifuos'kokn
lkezkT;okn dh lg;ksxh izfØ;k gS ftlesa foftr jk"Vª fotsrk dk mifuos'k cu
tkrk gS vFkkZr foftr jk"Vª ds lHkh lalk/kuksa dk iz;ksx fotsrk jk"Vª
vius fgrksa dh flf) gsrq djrk gSA
vFkZ& lkezkT;okn 'kCn dk iz;ksx
usiksfy;u cksukikVZ (1700&1815) ds le; ;wjksi esa izpfyr gqvkA
rRdkyhu 19oha lnh ds izkjaHk esa bldk vFkZ ,d ns'k }kjk nwljs jk"Vª ds
izfr vkØked O;ogkj ls yxk;k tkrk FkkA ijarq lkekU;r% ;g ,d izfØ;k gS ftlesa
fodflr iwathoknh jk"Vªksa us vfodflr jk"Vªksa ij viuk
jktuhfrd&vkfFkZd izHkqRo LFkkfir fd;kA lezkT;okn og izfØ;k gS ftlds }kjk
fodflr iwathoknh jk"Vªksa us vfodflr rFkk iwthokn iwoZ dh voLFkk esa jgs
ns'kksa ij fot; izkIr djus ,oa mu ij izHkqRo LFkkfir djus dk dne mBk;kA
lkezkT;okn ml n'kk dh vksj ladsr djrk gS ftlesa fotsrk iwathoknh ns'k vius
jktuhfrd ,oa vkfFkZd izHkqRo dh LFkkiuk foftr ns'k ij djrk gSA
Û mifuos'kokn
lkezkT;okn dh lg;ksxh izfØ;k gS ftlesa foftr jk"Vª fotsrk dk mifuos'k cu
tkrk gS vFkkZr foftr jk"Vª ds lHkh lalk/kuksa dk iz;ksx fotsrk jk"Vª
vius fgrksa dh flf) gsrq djrk gSA
Û bl
izdkj lkezkT;okn rFkk mifuos'kokn nks vyx&vyx izfØ;k,a ugha gSA okLro es
foLrkjokn dks viukus okys ns'k dh uhfr lkezkT;okn gS vkSj mldk tks ifj.kke foftr
jk"Vª dks >syuk iM+rk gS og mifuos'kokn gSA
mifuos'kokn dh izd`fr&
mifuos'kokn
viuh izd`fr ls ,d 'kks"kd fLFkfr gS ftlesa lkezkT;oknh ns'k vius fgr lk/ku
ds fy, mifuos'k ds lalk/kuksa dk mi;ksx djrk gSA bl fgr lk/ku ds fy, mifuos'k
ds jktuhfrd] vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd laxBu esa bl izdkj cnyko yk, tkrs gSa ftuls
iwathoknh ns'k ds fgrksa dks iwjk djus esa lqfo/kk gksA iwathoknh ns'k
mifuos'kokn dh vyx&vyx voLFkkvksa esa mifuos'k dh thou&'kSyh dks
vyx&vyx fn'kkvksa ls izHkkfor djrk gS rkfd mlds vius LokFkksZa iwfrZ gks
ldsA iwathoknh ns'k mifuos'kksa dh thou 'kSyh dks iwjh rjg iwoZ iwathoknh
O;oLFkkk esa Hkh ugha jgus nsrs vkSj u gh mls iwjh rjg iwathoknh O;oLFkk esa
izos'k djus nsrk gSA ,slk blfy, fd;k tkrk gS fd iwathoknh ns'k vius vkS|ksfxd
,oa iwathoknh fodkl ds fy, mifuos'k ds dPps eky ,oa Je 'kfDr dk 'kks"k.k
dj lds vkSj mifuos'k lnk ds fy, mifuos'k gh cuk jgdj iwathoknh ns'k ds
mRiknuksa dk cktkj cuk jgsA bl izdkj mifuos'kokn fo'o ds vfodflr ns'kksa dks
fo'o iwathoknh O;oLFkk dk ,d vfHkUu vax rks cukrk gS fdarq mls ,slh n'kk esa
j[krk gS fd og iwathoknh mRiknu ds fodkl ;k vkS|kSfxd Økafr ls lh/kk laca/k u
cuk ldsA dqy feykdj mifuos'kokn }kjk mifuos'kksa ds fodkl dks vo:) j[kk tkrk gS
rkfd ogka okLrfod iwathoknh fodflr u gksA
mifuos'kokn dh izeq[k fo'ks"krk,a&
1- lkezkT;oknh
'kfDr }kjk v/khuLFk ns'k ds jktuhfrd] vkfFkZd ra= ij vf/kdkjA
2- mifuos'k
dk fofHkUu Lrjksa ij 'kks"k.k djds mlds lalk/kuksa dk lkezkT;oknh 'kfDr
}kjk Lofgr esa iz;ksxA
3- mifuos'k
ds fodkl esa ml gn rd :fp ysuk ftlls lkezkT;oknh 'kfDr ds vius fgrksa dh iwfrZ
gksA
4- lkezkT;okn
dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa tSls &of.kdokn] Lora= O;kikj uhfr rFkk foRr iwathokn
esa 'kks"k.k dh uohu iz.kkyh dk fodkl ftlls dqy iwathoknh ykHk vf/kdre gks
ldsA
5- mifuos'k
dks lnk ds fy, mifuos'k cuk, j[kus dk iz;kl djuk rkfd iwathoknh 'kfDr dks vius
fgr lk/ku esa ck/kk u igqapsA
6- ,slh
jktuhfrd] vkfFkZd rFkk lkekftd uhfr;ksa ,oa ijaijkvksa dks c<+kok nsuk ftlls
mifuos'k dPps eky dk lzksr rFkk iwathoknh rS;kj eky dk cktkj cu ldsA
mifuos'kokn dh voLFkk,a&
mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj
O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh
vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS &
vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g
'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h
,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx
lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA
Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh
xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&
1- izFke
voLFkk ( 1757&1813)
2- f}rh;
voLFkk (1813&1860)
3- r`rh;
voLFkk (1860&1947)
1-
izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds lkFk
Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds
ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij
,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k
mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks
jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd
djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY;
/kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls
izkIr /ku dks gh Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh;
dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de
ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl rjg ykxr esa deh
vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius
vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh
dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjrh;
mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds
lk/ku FksA
[k- fu;kZr
esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh
us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA
x- daiuh
dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl
jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr
fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA
?k- bl
voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr
dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk
'kks"k.k gqvkA
M- bl
iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa
vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd,
x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA
mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj
O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh
vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS &
vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g
'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h
,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx
lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA
Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh
xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&
1- izFke
voLFkk ( 1757&1813)
2- f}rh;
voLFkk (1813&1860)
3- r`rh;
voLFkk (1860&1947)
1-
izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds
lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds
ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij
,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k
mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks
jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd
djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY;
/kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls
izkIr /ku dks gh Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh;
dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de
ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl rjg ykxr esa deh
vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius
vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh
dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjrh;
mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds
lk/ku FksA
[k- fu;kZr
esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh
us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA
x- daiuh
dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl
jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr
fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA
?k- bl
voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr
dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk
'kks"k.k gqvkA
M- bl
iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa
vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd,
x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA
p- bl
dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh
vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA
2-
f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj
ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh
fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa
lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky
izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[;
;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk ds fy, Hkkjr esa
ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu
}kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu
ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu
m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh uhfr;ksa
dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj Hkkjrh;
yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd fgrksa
dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- vkS|ksfxd
Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc
fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr
esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA
[k- eqDr
O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls
Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k
vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks
fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr
gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA
x- Hkkjr
esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks
fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh
O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd
{ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA
?k- foLr`r
,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk
dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k
iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA
M- vkfFkZd
ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA
p- Hkkjr
esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk
dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus
esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA
mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj
O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh
vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS &
vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g
'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h
,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx
lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA
Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh
xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&
1- izFke
voLFkk ( 1757&1813)
2- f}rh;
voLFkk (1813&1860)
3- r`rh;
voLFkk (1860&1947)
1-
izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds
lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds
ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij
,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k
mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks
jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd
djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY;
/kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls
izkIr /ku dks gh Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh;
dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de
ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl rjg ykxr esa deh
vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius
vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh
dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjrh;
mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds
lk/ku FksA
[k- fu;kZr
esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh
us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA
x- daiuh
dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl
jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr
fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA
?k- bl
voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr
dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk
'kks"k.k gqvkA
M- bl
iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa
vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd,
x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA
p- bl
dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh
vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA
2-
f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj
ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh
fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa
lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky
izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[;
;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk ds fy, Hkkjr esa
ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu
}kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu
ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu
m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh
uhfr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj Hkkjrh;
yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd fgrksa
dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- vkS|ksfxd
Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc
fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr
esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA
[k- eqDr
O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls
Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k
vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks
fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr
gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA
x- Hkkjr
esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks
fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh
O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd
{ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA
?k- foLr`r
,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk
dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k
iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA
M- vkfFkZd
ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA
p- Hkkjr
esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk
dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus
esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA
N- bl
nkSj esa Hkkjrh; laLd`fr vkSj lekt dh rhoz vkykspuk dh xbZ rFkk fczfV'k 'kklu
dks Hkkjrh;ksa esa lH;rk ds izlkj dk lk/ku fu:fir fd;k x;kA
t- Hkkjr
ls vfrjsd /ku dks fczVsu LFkkukarfjr fd;k tkuk bl nkSj esa Hkh mifuos'kokn dk
izeq[k y{k.k cuk jgkA egaxs iz'kklu vkSj vf/kd djkjksi.k us Hkkjrh; yksxksa ds
'kks"k.k dks vf/kdre djus esa lg;ksx fn;kA
3-
r`rh; voLFkk& fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa 1860 rd vk;s ifjorZuksa ds ifj.kke Lo:i Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn
dh r`rh; voLFkk izkjEHk gqbZA bl voLFkk ds izkjEHk gksus ds dqN cqfu;knh dkj.k
Fks& vkS|ksfxd dzkafr ds ;wjksi ,oa vesafjdk ds ns'kksa esa izlkj ds dkj.k
fczVsu dh vkS|ksfxd Js"Brk lekIr gks xbZ] uohu 'kfDr ds lk/kuksa fctyh
rFkk isVªksfy;e ds iz;ksx ls ,d uohu rduhdh Økafr dk mn; gqvk rFkk ifjogu ds
varjkZ"Vªh; lk/kuksa esa dzkafr ds dkj.k fo'o cktkj dk vf/kd ,dhdj.k gqvkA
bu dkj.kksa vkSj mifuos'kksa ls iwath ds vf/kdkf/kd nksgu ds ifj.kkeLo:i
iawthoknh ns'kksa esa cM+h ek=k esa iwath dk lap; gqvkA vc bl iwath ds fuos'k
ds fy, iqu% ,d izfrLi/kkZ 'kq: gbZ ftlesa mifuos'kksa dk foRrh; iwathokn ds
}kjk 'kks"k.k fd;k x;kA bl foRr iwathokn us iqu% fo'o ds foHkktu vkSj
uo&mifuos'khdj.k dh izfØ;k dks tUe fn;k tks Hkkjr esa 1860 ds ckn izkjEHk
gqbZA
bl
voLFkk ds nkSjku lalkj esa fczVsu dh fLFkfr dks izfr}Unh iwathoknh ns'kksa }kjk
yxkrkj pqukSrh nh xbZ FkhA Hkkjr ij viuk fu;a=.k n`<+ djus ds fy, vc blus
l'kDr iz;Ru fd,A mnkj lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ka vc izfrfØ;kRed lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ksa
esa cny x;hA ;g fyVu] MQfju] ykalMkmu rFkk dtZu ds ok;ljk; ds dky esa
izfrfcfEcr gqvkA izfr}fUn;ksa dks ckgj j[kus ds fy, fczfV'k iwath dks Hkkjr esa
vkd`"V djus ds fy, rFkk bls lqj{kk iznku djus ds fy, Hkkjr esa jsyos]
Hkkjrh; ljdkj ds _.k] O;kikj o dqN gn rd ckxku] dks;yk [kku] twV dkj[kkuksa]
tgktjkuh rFkk cSafdx esa yxkbZ x;h FkhA
bl
nkSj eas iqu% iwathoknh la?k"kZ izkjEHk gqvk ftlesa fczVsu ds lkezkT; dh
lqj{kk esa Hkkjr esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk dh A fczVsu us bl uo&mifuos'kokn
dh voLFkk esa Hkkjr ij vf/kd rhoz fu;a=.k dh 'kq:vkr dhA vf/kd etcwr] dk;Zdq'ky
,oa O;kid iz'kklu] fujadq'k fdarq fir`or rkuk'kkgh rFkk dV~Vjoknh vkSj
izfrfØ;koknh rkdrksa dks izJ; nsus dh uhfr }kjk Hkkjr ij vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkj
dks LFkk;h j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA mifuos'kokn dh bl r`rh; voLFkkk dh
fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjr
esa fczfV'k iwath dh lqj{kk vc fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk igyk y{; FkhA
[k- ,f'k;k
vkSj vQzhdk esa Hkh fczfV'k lkezkT; dh lqj{kk] foLrkj vkSj lqn`<+hdj.k ds
fy, Hkkjrh; lsuk dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k vkSj Hkkjr ij vius lkezkT; dks vf/kdkf/kd
O;kid cukdj Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd vkRe fuHkZjrk ds iz;kl dks nck;k x;kA
x- Hkkjrh;ksa
esa iui jgh Lo&'kklu vkSj jktuhfrd Lora=rk dh bPNk ds vc iwjh rjg neu }kjk
dqpyus dh uhfr viuk;h xbZA
mifuos'kokn ds izHkko&
mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj
O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh
vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS &
vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g
'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h
,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx
lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA
Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh
xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&
1- izFke
voLFkk ( 1757&1813)
2- f}rh;
voLFkk (1813&1860)
3- r`rh;
voLFkk (1860&1947)
1-
izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds
lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds
ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij
,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k
mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks
jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd
djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY;
/kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls
izkIr /ku dks gh Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh;
dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de
ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl rjg ykxr esa deh
vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius
vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh
dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjrh;
mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds
lk/ku FksA
[k- fu;kZr
esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh
us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA
x- daiuh
dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl
jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr
fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA
?k- bl
voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr
dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk 'kks"k.k
gqvkA
M- bl
iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa
vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd,
x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA
p- bl
dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh
vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA
2-
f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj
ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh
fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa
lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky
izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[;
;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk ds fy, Hkkjr esa
ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu
}kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu
ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu
m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh
uhfr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj
Hkkjrh; yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd
fgrksa dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- vkS|ksfxd
Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc
fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr
esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA
[k- eqDr
O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls
Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k
vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks
fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr
gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA
x- Hkkjr
esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks
fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh
O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd
{ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA
?k- foLr`r
,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk
dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k
iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA
M- vkfFkZd
ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA
p- Hkkjr
esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk
dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus
esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA
N- bl
nkSj esa Hkkjrh; laLd`fr vkSj lekt dh rhoz vkykspuk dh xbZ rFkk fczfV'k 'kklu
dks Hkkjrh;ksa esa lH;rk ds izlkj dk lk/ku fu:fir fd;k x;kA
t- Hkkjr
ls vfrjsd /ku dks fczVsu LFkkukarfjr fd;k tkuk bl nkSj esa Hkh mifuos'kokn dk
izeq[k y{k.k cuk jgkA egaxs iz'kklu vkSj vf/kd djkjksi.k us Hkkjrh; yksxksa ds
'kks"k.k dks vf/kdre djus esa lg;ksx fn;kA
3-
r`rh; voLFkk& fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa 1860 rd vk;s ifjorZuksa ds ifj.kke Lo:i Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn
dh r`rh; voLFkk izkjEHk gqbZA bl voLFkk ds izkjEHk gksus ds dqN cqfu;knh dkj.k
Fks& vkS|ksfxd dzkafr ds ;wjksi ,oa vesafjdk ds ns'kksa esa izlkj ds dkj.k
fczVsu dh vkS|ksfxd Js"Brk lekIr gks xbZ] uohu 'kfDr ds lk/kuksa fctyh
rFkk isVªksfy;e ds iz;ksx ls ,d uohu rduhdh Økafr dk mn; gqvk rFkk ifjogu ds
varjkZ"Vªh; lk/kuksa esa dzkafr ds dkj.k fo'o cktkj dk vf/kd ,dhdj.k gqvkA
bu dkj.kksa vkSj mifuos'kksa ls iwath ds vf/kdkf/kd nksgu ds ifj.kkeLo:i
iawthoknh ns'kksa esa cM+h ek=k esa iwath dk lap; gqvkA vc bl iwath ds fuos'k
ds fy, iqu% ,d izfrLi/kkZ 'kq: gbZ ftlesa mifuos'kksa dk foRrh; iwathokn ds
}kjk 'kks"k.k fd;k x;kA bl foRr iwathokn us iqu% fo'o ds foHkktu vkSj
uo&mifuos'khdj.k dh izfØ;k dks tUe fn;k tks Hkkjr esa 1860 ds ckn izkjEHk
gqbZA
bl
voLFkk ds nkSjku lalkj esa fczVsu dh fLFkfr dks izfr}Unh iwathoknh ns'kksa }kjk
yxkrkj pqukSrh nh xbZ FkhA Hkkjr ij viuk fu;a=.k n`<+ djus ds fy, vc blus
l'kDr iz;Ru fd,A mnkj lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ka vc izfrfØ;kRed lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ksa
esa cny x;hA ;g fyVu] MQfju] ykalMkmu rFkk dtZu ds ok;ljk; ds dky esa
izfrfcfEcr gqvkA izfr}fUn;ksa dks ckgj j[kus ds fy, fczfV'k iwath dks Hkkjr esa
vkd`"V djus ds fy, rFkk bls lqj{kk iznku djus ds fy, Hkkjr esa jsyos]
Hkkjrh; ljdkj ds _.k] O;kikj o dqN gn rd ckxku] dks;yk [kku] twV dkj[kkuksa]
tgktjkuh rFkk cSafdx esa yxkbZ x;h FkhA
bl
nkSj eas iqu% iwathoknh la?k"kZ izkjEHk gqvk ftlesa fczVsu ds lkezkT; dh
lqj{kk esa Hkkjr esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk dh A fczVsu us bl uo&mifuos'kokn
dh voLFkk esa Hkkjr ij vf/kd rhoz fu;a=.k dh 'kq:vkr dhA vf/kd etcwr] dk;Zdq'ky
,oa O;kid iz'kklu] fujadq'k fdarq fir`or rkuk'kkgh rFkk dV~Vjoknh vkSj
izfrfØ;koknh rkdrksa dks izJ; nsus dh uhfr }kjk Hkkjr ij vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkj
dks LFkk;h j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA mifuos'kokn dh bl r`rh; voLFkkk dh
fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjr
esa fczfV'k iwath dh lqj{kk vc fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk igyk y{; FkhA
[k- ,f'k;k
vkSj vQzhdk esa Hkh fczfV'k lkezkT; dh lqj{kk] foLrkj vkSj lqn`<+hdj.k ds
fy, Hkkjrh; lsuk dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k vkSj Hkkjr ij vius lkezkT; dks vf/kdkf/kd
O;kid cukdj Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd vkRe fuHkZjrk ds iz;kl dks nck;k x;kA
x- Hkkjrh;ksa
esa iui jgh Lo&'kklu vkSj jktuhfrd Lora=rk dh bPNk ds vc iwjh rjg neu }kjk
dqpyus dh uhfr viuk;h xbZA
mifuos'kokn ds izHkko&
Hkkjr
esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn us Hkkjr dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuhfrd izR;sd {ks=
esa izHkkfor fd;kA Hkkjrh; thou vius O;fDrxr vkSj lkewfgd :i esa mifuos'kokn dh
lHkh n'kkvksa esa fons'kh lRrk ds euekus 'kks"k.k dk f'kdkj gqvk vkSj yEcs
le; rd vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us gekjh ewyHkwr lajpuk ij fofo/k izHkko MkysA bu
izHkkoksa dks vkfFkZd] lekftd ,oa jktuhfrd ifjizs{; esa ns[ks tkus dh vko';drk
gS&
1-
vkfFkZd izHkko& mifuos'kokn
vkfFkZd ykHkksa ds fy, ykxw dh xbZ ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk gS vr%
LokHkkfod :i ls mlds lcls vf/kd izHkko vkfFkZd {ks= ij gh fn[kkbZ iM+rs gSaA
Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn us vius izR;sd pj.k esa ;gka adh vFkZO;oLFkk ds izR;sd
igyw&d`f"k] m|ksx] oxZ] vkfFkZd n'kk rFkk jk"Vªh; vk; dks
izHkkfor fd;kA
d- mifuos'kokn
ds izkjfEHkd nkSj us gh Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd m|ksxksa dks lekIr dj fn;kA Hkkjrh;
gLr f'kfYi;ksa dks de ls de dher ij vius fy, dke djus dks ck/; djds rFkk mUgsa
Å¡ph dherksa ij dPpk eky [kjhnus ij foo'k djds nksgjs 'kks"k.k }kjk lekIr
dj fn;kA vkS|kSfxd dzkafr ds ckn ds nkSj esa Hkkjr dks baXyS.M ds vkS|ksfxd
mRiknksa dk cktkj cuk fn;k x;k vkSj ;gka ds yksxksa dks fczfV'k vk;krksa ij
fuHkZj gks tkuk iM+kA
[k- Hkkjrh;
d`"kd dks vR;f/kd Hkwfe jktLo ds fu/kkZj.k] tehankjh O;oLFkk rFkk Hkwfe
cankscLrksa }kjk vf/kdkf/kd nfjnz cuk;k x;k vkSj og d`"kd ls [ksfrgj etnwj
curk pykA
x- Hkkjr
esa d`f"k ds {ks= esa ,d uhou izfdz;k dk tUe gqvk ftls d`f"k dk
O;olk;hdj.k dgk x;kA blds varxZr Hkkjrh; d`f"k esa udnh Qlyksa dk izfr'kr
c<+k] Hkkjrh; d`f"k dk cktkj vUrjkZ"Vªh; gqvk rFkk Hkkjr essa
iwathoknh d`f"k dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA fdarq ;g leLr izfØ;k Hkkjrh; d`"kd
ds fy, vfufPNr rFkk Fkksih x;h O;oLFkk dk ifj.kke Fkh ftlus mlds 'kks"k.k
esa o`f) gh dhA
?k- mifuos'kokn
us vius izR;sd nkSj esa Hkkjr ds ijEijkxr xzkeh.k vkfFkZd <kaps dks ifjofrZr
fd;k ftlls vkRefuHkZj xzkeh.k O;oLFkk lekIr gqbZ rFkk Hkkjr dh cgqla[;d
turk
(d`"kd vkSj NksVs dkjhxj) vYila[;d yksxksa (tehankj vkSj egktu) }kjk 'kksf"kr gqbZA
(d`"kd vkSj NksVs dkjhxj) vYila[;d yksxksa (tehankj vkSj egktu) }kjk 'kksf"kr gqbZA
M- vkSifuosf'kd
Hkkjr esa vkfFkZd voLFkk yxkrkj cnrj gksrh xbZ ftldk ifjp; yxkrkj iM+rs mu
vdkyksa esa feyrk gS tks fczfV'k 'kklu ds izkjEHk ls Hkkjr dh Lora=rk izkfIr rd
yxkrkj fofHkUu {ks=ksa es IkM+rs jgsA bu vdkyksa dk ,d ize[qk dkj.k Fkk& vkSifuosf'kd
'kklu ds varxZr d`"kd dh cngkyh] dqVhj m|ksxksa dk lekiu] iz'kklu }kjk
ywV&[klksV rFkk [kk|kUu mRiknu esa yxkrkj dehA
p- vkSifuosf'kd
'kklu dh uhfr;ksa us Hkkjr esa m|ksxksa dh LFkkiuk ,oa fodkl dks jksds j[kkk
vkSj ;gka dh vFkZO;oLFkk dks d`f"k vk/kkfjr xzkeh.k vFkZO;oLFkk cuk, j[kkA
vkSifuosf'kd
vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ds dqN ldkjkRed ifj.kke Hkh gq,&vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us
Hkkjr esa jsyos vkSj Mkd&rkj] cSad] chek rFkk vk/kqfud iwathokn ls izHkkfor
vkS|ksfxd O;oLFkk dh 'kq:vkr dhA ;|fi bu lc dk y{; lkezkT;oknh O;oLFkk dh mUufr
Fkk fdarq budk mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu
voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA
mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS & vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ
ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g 'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa
jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h ,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k
vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh
voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk
n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&
1- izFke
voLFkk ( 1757&1813)
2- f}rh;
voLFkk (1813&1860)
3- r`rh;
voLFkk (1860&1947)
1-
izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds
lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds
ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij ,dkf/kdkj
izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k mifuos'kokn
dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks jktuhfrd 'kfDr
izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd djus ds fy,
fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY; /kkrq,a nsus ds
cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls izkIr /ku dks gh Hkkjr
esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds
iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus
ij ck/; fd;kA bl rjg ykxr esa deh vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd
'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA
bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjrh;
mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds
lk/ku FksA
[k- fu;kZr
esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh
us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA
x- daiuh
dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl
jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr
fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA
?k- bl
voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr
dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk
'kks"k.k gqvkA
M- bl
iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa
vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd,
x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA
p- bl
dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh
vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA
2-
f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj
ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh
fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa
lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky
izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[;
;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk ds fy, Hkkjr esa
ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu
}kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu
ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu
m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh
uhfr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj
Hkkjrh; yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd
fgrksa dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- vkS|ksfxd
Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc
fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr
esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA
[k- eqDr
O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls
Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k
vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks
fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr
gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA
x- Hkkjr
esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks
fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh
O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd
{ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA
?k- foLr`r
,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk
dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k
iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA
M- vkfFkZd
ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA
p- Hkkjr
esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk
dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus
esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA
N- bl
nkSj esa Hkkjrh; laLd`fr vkSj lekt dh rhoz vkykspuk dh xbZ rFkk fczfV'k 'kklu
dks Hkkjrh;ksa esa lH;rk ds izlkj dk lk/ku fu:fir fd;k x;kA
t- Hkkjr
ls vfrjsd /ku dks fczVsu LFkkukarfjr fd;k tkuk bl nkSj esa Hkh mifuos'kokn dk
izeq[k y{k.k cuk jgkA egaxs iz'kklu vkSj vf/kd djkjksi.k us Hkkjrh; yksxksa ds
'kks"k.k dks vf/kdre djus esa lg;ksx fn;kA
3-
r`rh; voLFkk& fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa 1860 rd vk;s ifjorZuksa ds ifj.kke Lo:i Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn
dh r`rh; voLFkk izkjEHk gqbZA bl voLFkk ds izkjEHk gksus ds dqN cqfu;knh dkj.k
Fks& vkS|ksfxd dzkafr ds ;wjksi ,oa vesafjdk ds ns'kksa esa izlkj ds dkj.k
fczVsu dh vkS|ksfxd Js"Brk lekIr gks xbZ] uohu 'kfDr ds lk/kuksa fctyh
rFkk isVªksfy;e ds iz;ksx ls ,d uohu rduhdh Økafr dk mn; gqvk rFkk ifjogu ds varjkZ"Vªh;
lk/kuksa esa dzkafr ds dkj.k fo'o cktkj dk vf/kd ,dhdj.k gqvkA bu dkj.kksa vkSj
mifuos'kksa ls iwath ds vf/kdkf/kd nksgu ds ifj.kkeLo:i iawthoknh ns'kksa esa
cM+h ek=k esa iwath dk lap; gqvkA vc bl iwath ds fuos'k ds fy, iqu% ,d
izfrLi/kkZ 'kq: gbZ ftlesa mifuos'kksa dk foRrh; iwathokn ds }kjk 'kks"k.k
fd;k x;kA bl foRr iwathokn us iqu% fo'o ds foHkktu vkSj uo&mifuos'khdj.k dh
izfØ;k dks tUe fn;k tks Hkkjr esa 1860 ds ckn izkjEHk gqbZA
bl
voLFkk ds nkSjku lalkj esa fczVsu dh fLFkfr dks izfr}Unh iwathoknh ns'kksa }kjk
yxkrkj pqukSrh nh xbZ FkhA Hkkjr ij viuk fu;a=.k n`<+ djus ds fy, vc blus
l'kDr iz;Ru fd,A mnkj lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ka vc izfrfØ;kRed lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ksa
esa cny x;hA ;g fyVu] MQfju] ykalMkmu rFkk dtZu ds ok;ljk; ds dky esa
izfrfcfEcr gqvkA izfr}fUn;ksa dks ckgj j[kus ds fy, fczfV'k iwath dks Hkkjr esa
vkd`"V djus ds fy, rFkk bls lqj{kk iznku djus ds fy, Hkkjr esa jsyos]
Hkkjrh; ljdkj ds _.k] O;kikj o dqN gn rd ckxku] dks;yk [kku] twV dkj[kkuksa]
tgktjkuh rFkk cSafdx esa yxkbZ x;h FkhA
bl
nkSj eas iqu% iwathoknh la?k"kZ izkjEHk gqvk ftlesa fczVsu ds lkezkT; dh
lqj{kk esa Hkkjr esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk dh A fczVsu us bl uo&mifuos'kokn
dh voLFkk esa Hkkjr ij vf/kd rhoz fu;a=.k dh 'kq:vkr dhA vf/kd etcwr] dk;Zdq'ky
,oa O;kid iz'kklu] fujadq'k fdarq fir`or rkuk'kkgh rFkk dV~Vjoknh vkSj
izfrfØ;koknh rkdrksa dks izJ; nsus dh uhfr }kjk Hkkjr ij vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkj
dks LFkk;h j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA mifuos'kokn dh bl r`rh; voLFkkk dh
fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjr
esa fczfV'k iwath dh lqj{kk vc fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk igyk y{; FkhA
[k- ,f'k;k
vkSj vQzhdk esa Hkh fczfV'k lkezkT; dh lqj{kk] foLrkj vkSj lqn`<+hdj.k ds
fy, Hkkjrh; lsuk dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k vkSj Hkkjr ij vius lkezkT; dks vf/kdkf/kd
O;kid cukdj Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd vkRe fuHkZjrk ds iz;kl dks nck;k x;kA
x- Hkkjrh;ksa
esa iui jgh Lo&'kklu vkSj jktuhfrd Lora=rk dh bPNk ds vc iwjh rjg neu }kjk
dqpyus dh uhfr viuk;h xbZA
mifuos'kokn ds izHkko&
Hkkjr
esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn us Hkkjr dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuhfrd izR;sd {ks=
esa izHkkfor fd;kA Hkkjrh; thou vius O;fDrxr vkSj lkewfgd :i esa mifuos'kokn dh
lHkh n'kkvksa esa fons'kh lRrk ds euekus 'kks"k.k dk f'kdkj gqvk vkSj yEcs
le; rd vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us gekjh ewyHkwr lajpuk ij fofo/k izHkko MkysA bu
izHkkoksa dks vkfFkZd] lekftd ,oa jktuhfrd ifjizs{; esa ns[ks tkus dh vko';drk
gS&
1-
vkfFkZd izHkko& mifuos'kokn
vkfFkZd ykHkksa ds fy, ykxw dh xbZ ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk gS vr%
LokHkkfod :i ls mlds lcls vf/kd izHkko vkfFkZd {ks= ij gh fn[kkbZ iM+rs gSaA
Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn us vius izR;sd pj.k esa ;gka adh vFkZO;oLFkk ds izR;sd
igyw&d`f"k] m|ksx] oxZ] vkfFkZd n'kk rFkk jk"Vªh; vk; dks
izHkkfor fd;kA
d- mifuos'kokn
ds izkjfEHkd nkSj us gh Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd m|ksxksa dks lekIr dj fn;kA Hkkjrh;
gLr f'kfYi;ksa dks de ls de dher ij vius fy, dke djus dks ck/; djds rFkk mUgsa
Å¡ph dherksa ij dPpk eky [kjhnus ij foo'k djds nksgjs 'kks"k.k }kjk lekIr
dj fn;kA vkS|kSfxd dzkafr ds ckn ds nkSj esa Hkkjr dks baXyS.M ds vkS|ksfxd
mRiknksa dk cktkj cuk fn;k x;k vkSj ;gka ds yksxksa dks fczfV'k vk;krksa ij
fuHkZj gks tkuk iM+kA
[k- Hkkjrh;
d`"kd dks vR;f/kd Hkwfe jktLo ds fu/kkZj.k] tehankjh O;oLFkk rFkk Hkwfe
cankscLrksa }kjk vf/kdkf/kd nfjnz cuk;k x;k vkSj og d`"kd ls [ksfrgj etnwj
curk pykA
x- Hkkjr
esa d`f"k ds {ks= esa ,d uhou izfdz;k dk tUe gqvk ftls d`f"k dk
O;olk;hdj.k dgk x;kA blds varxZr Hkkjrh; d`f"k esa udnh Qlyksa dk izfr'kr
c<+k] Hkkjrh; d`f"k dk cktkj vUrjkZ"Vªh; gqvk rFkk Hkkjr essa
iwathoknh d`f"k dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA fdarq ;g leLr izfØ;k Hkkjrh; d`"kd
ds fy, vfufPNr rFkk Fkksih x;h O;oLFkk dk ifj.kke Fkh ftlus mlds 'kks"k.k
esa o`f) gh dhA
?k- mifuos'kokn
us vius izR;sd nkSj esa Hkkjr ds ijEijkxr xzkeh.k vkfFkZd <kaps dks ifjofrZr
fd;k ftlls vkRefuHkZj xzkeh.k O;oLFkk lekIr gqbZ rFkk Hkkjr dh cgqla[;d
turk
(d`"kd vkSj NksVs dkjhxj) vYila[;d yksxksa (tehankj vkSj egktu) }kjk 'kksf"kr gqbZA
(d`"kd vkSj NksVs dkjhxj) vYila[;d yksxksa (tehankj vkSj egktu) }kjk 'kksf"kr gqbZA
M- vkSifuosf'kd
Hkkjr esa vkfFkZd voLFkk yxkrkj cnrj gksrh xbZ ftldk ifjp; yxkrkj iM+rs mu
vdkyksa esa feyrk gS tks fczfV'k 'kklu ds izkjEHk ls Hkkjr dh Lora=rk izkfIr rd
yxkrkj fofHkUu {ks=ksa es IkM+rs jgsA bu vdkyksa dk ,d ize[qk dkj.k Fkk&
vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu ds varxZr d`"kd dh cngkyh] dqVhj m|ksxksa dk lekiu]
iz'kklu }kjk ywV&[klksV rFkk [kk|kUu mRiknu esa yxkrkj dehA
p- vkSifuosf'kd
'kklu dh uhfr;ksa us Hkkjr esa m|ksxksa dh LFkkiuk ,oa fodkl dks jksds j[kkk
vkSj ;gka dh vFkZO;oLFkk dks d`f"k vk/kkfjr xzkeh.k vFkZO;oLFkk cuk, j[kkA
vkSifuosf'kd
vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ds dqN ldkjkRed ifj.kke Hkh gq,&vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us
Hkkjr esa jsyos vkSj Mkd&rkj] cSad] chek rFkk vk/kqfud iwathokn ls izHkkfor
vkS|ksfxd O;oLFkk dh 'kq:vkr dhA ;|fi bu lc dk y{; lkezkT;oknh O;oLFkk dh mUufr
Fkk fdarq budk Hkkjrh; lekt ds vk/kqfudhdj.k esa Hkh ;ksxnku jgkA bu uhfr;ksa
us iwjs Hkkjr dks ,d tSlh vkfFkZd leL;k,a&d`f"k laca/kh leL;k,a]
xjhch] csjkstxkjh vkfn nh ftuls Hkkjr ds jk"Vªh; vkfFkZd
,dhdj.k dk ekxZ iz'kLr gqvkA
2-
lkekftd izHkko& mifuos'kokn
us Hkkjrh; lkekftd <kaps esa Hkh egRoiw.kZ ifjorZuksa dh :ijs[kk j[khA
mifuos'kokn }kjk Hkkjr dh vkfFkZd lajpuk esa yk, x, ifjorZuksa us ;gka dh
lkekftd lajpuk dks izHkkfor fd;k&
d- Hkkjrh;
xzkeksa ds vkRefuHkZj Lo:i ds fo?kVu ls ogka ds lekftd laca/k Hkh ifjofrZr gq,
vkSj vc lkekftd laca/kksa ds u, Lo:i dk tUe gqvkA
[k- Hkkjrh;
xzkeksa esa tehankj] vuqifLFkr HkwLokeh (tks 'kgjksa esa jgrs Fks vkSj
vius xqek'rksa ds ek/;e ls xkao ls Hkw&jktLo dh olwyh djrs Fks)] iV~Vsnkj]
dk'rdkj ekfyd] [ksfrgj etnwj] NksVs O;kikjh ,oa lwn[kksaj egktu tSls u, oxksZa
dk mn; mifuos'kokn dk gh ifj.kke FkkA
x- 'kgjh
thou esa foRrh; iwathifr] m|ksxifr] vkS|ksfxd etnwj] vk/kqfud iwathoknh O;kikjh
,oa nqdkunkj] MkWDVj] odhy] i=dkj] f'k{kd tSls is'ksoj oxksZa dk mn; Hkh
mifuos'kokn ds dkj.k gqvk tks dkykarj esa Hkkjrh; lekt ds egRoiw.kZ LraHk cusA
?k- is'ksoj
oxZ esa is'kkxr lkekftd psruk dk mn; Hkh mifuos'koknh 'kklu ds ifj.kkeLo:i gh
gqvkA bl lkekftd psruk us Lora= Hkkjr esa jktuhfrd ncko lewgksa dk :i ys fy;kA
M- Hkkjr
esa tkrh; laxBuksa dk mn; Hkh vkSifuosf'kd O;oLFkk esa vkfFkZd jktuhfrd ykHkksa
ds fy, ncko cukus dh vko';drk dk gh ifj.kke gS ftlus vkt rd Hkkjrh; lekt dks
fo[kafMr j[kk gS vkSj jktuhfr dks izHkkfor fd;k gSA
p- Hkkjrh;
lekt esa lkaiznkf;drk ds fo"k dk mn; ,oa fodkl vkSifuosf'kd
vFkZO;oLFkk dk LokHkkfod ifj.kke Fkk ftls vkSifuosf'kd 'kkldksa us QwV Mkydj
jkt djus dh uhfr }kjk iqf"ir&iYyfor fd;kA
3- jktuhfrd
izHkko & vkSifuosf'kd
'kklu us yacs le; rd Hkkjr esa ekStwn jgdj vius izR;{k ,oa vizR;{k ifj.kkeksa
ls Hkkjr dks ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr dk :i Hkh fn;k vkSj bUgha RkRoksa us Hkkjrh;
jktuhfr dks og Lo:i Hkh iznku fd;k tks ges vkt fn[kkbZ nsrk gS&
d- mifuos'koknh
'kkldksa us 'kklu dh lqfo/kk ds fy, Hkkjr dks ,d lw= esa cka/kk rFkk ,d tSlh
iz'kklfud O;oLFkk ykxw dh ftlls Hkkjrh;ksa esa Hkh jktuhfrd bdkbZ gksus dh
psruk tkx`r gqbZ vkSj Hkkjr dk ,d jk"Vª ds :i esa fuekZ.k laHko gqvkA
[k- vaxzstksa
}kjk ykxw f'k{kk iz.kkyh us Hkkjrh;ksa dks yksdra= ,oa Lokra=~; psruk ls ifjfpr
djk;k ftlls Hkkjrh;ksa dks Hkh vius lekt ,oa jkT; dks yksdrkaf=d O;oLFkk esa
ykus dh izsj.kk feyhA
x- vkSifuosf'kd
vf/kdkfj;ksa }kjk Hkkjr ds yksxksa ij fd, tkus okys vR;kpkjksa] viekutud mifuos'kokn
,d fLFkj O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k
dh vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS
& vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk
'kks"k.kA ;g 'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh
'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h ,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx
nkSj esa vyx&vyx lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa
dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu
fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&
1- izFke
voLFkk ( 1757&1813)
2- f}rh;
voLFkk (1813&1860)
3- r`rh;
voLFkk (1860&1947)
1-
izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds
lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds
ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij
,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k
mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks
jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd
djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY;
/kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls izkIr
/ku dks gh Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh;
dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de
ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl rjg ykxr esa deh
vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius
vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh
dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjrh;
mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds
lk/ku FksA
[k- fu;kZr
esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh
us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA
x- daiuh
dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl
jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr
fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA
?k- bl
voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr
dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk
'kks"k.k gqvkA
M- bl
iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa
vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd,
x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA
p- bl
dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh
vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA
2-
f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj
ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh
fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa
lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd
,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky
izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[;
;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk ds fy, Hkkjr esa
ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu
}kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu
ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu
m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh
uhfr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj
Hkkjrh; yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd
fgrksa dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- vkS|ksfxd
Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc
fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr
esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA
[k- eqDr
O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls
Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k
vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks
fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr
gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA
x- Hkkjr
esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks
fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh
O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd
{ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA
?k- foLr`r
,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk
dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k
iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA
M- vkfFkZd
ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA
p- Hkkjr
esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk
dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus
esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA
N- bl
nkSj esa Hkkjrh; laLd`fr vkSj lekt dh rhoz vkykspuk dh xbZ rFkk fczfV'k 'kklu
dks Hkkjrh;ksa esa lH;rk ds izlkj dk lk/ku fu:fir fd;k x;kA
t- Hkkjr
ls vfrjsd /ku dks fczVsu LFkkukarfjr fd;k tkuk bl nkSj esa Hkh mifuos'kokn dk
izeq[k y{k.k cuk jgkA egaxs iz'kklu vkSj vf/kd djkjksi.k us Hkkjrh; yksxksa ds
'kks"k.k dks vf/kdre djus esa lg;ksx fn;kA
3-
r`rh; voLFkk& fo'o
vFkZO;oLFkk esa 1860 rd vk;s ifjorZuksa ds ifj.kke Lo:i Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn
dh r`rh; voLFkk izkjEHk gqbZA bl voLFkk ds izkjEHk gksus ds dqN cqfu;knh dkj.k
Fks& vkS|ksfxd dzkafr ds ;wjksi ,oa vesafjdk ds ns'kksa esa izlkj ds dkj.k
fczVsu dh vkS|ksfxd Js"Brk lekIr gks xbZ] uohu 'kfDr ds lk/kuksa fctyh
rFkk isVªksfy;e ds iz;ksx ls ,d uohu rduhdh Økafr dk mn; gqvk rFkk ifjogu ds varjkZ"Vªh;
lk/kuksa esa dzkafr ds dkj.k fo'o cktkj dk vf/kd ,dhdj.k gqvkA bu dkj.kksa vkSj
mifuos'kksa ls iwath ds vf/kdkf/kd nksgu ds ifj.kkeLo:i iawthoknh ns'kksa esa
cM+h ek=k esa iwath dk lap; gqvkA vc bl iwath ds fuos'k ds fy, iqu% ,d
izfrLi/kkZ 'kq: gbZ ftlesa mifuos'kksa dk foRrh; iwathokn ds }kjk 'kks"k.k
fd;k x;kA bl foRr iwathokn us iqu% fo'o ds foHkktu vkSj uo&mifuos'khdj.k dh
izfØ;k dks tUe fn;k tks Hkkjr esa 1860 ds ckn izkjEHk gqbZA
bl
voLFkk ds nkSjku lalkj esa fczVsu dh fLFkfr dks izfr}Unh iwathoknh ns'kksa }kjk
yxkrkj pqukSrh nh xbZ FkhA Hkkjr ij viuk fu;a=.k n`<+ djus ds fy, vc blus
l'kDr iz;Ru fd,A mnkj lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ka vc izfrfØ;kRed lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ksa
esa cny x;hA ;g fyVu] MQfju] ykalMkmu rFkk dtZu ds ok;ljk; ds dky esa izfrfcfEcr
gqvkA izfr}fUn;ksa dks ckgj j[kus ds fy, fczfV'k iwath dks Hkkjr esa
vkd`"V djus ds fy, rFkk bls lqj{kk iznku djus ds fy, Hkkjr esa jsyos]
Hkkjrh; ljdkj ds _.k] O;kikj o dqN gn rd ckxku] dks;yk [kku] twV dkj[kkuksa]
tgktjkuh rFkk cSafdx esa yxkbZ x;h FkhA
bl
nkSj eas iqu% iwathoknh la?k"kZ izkjEHk gqvk ftlesa fczVsu ds lkezkT; dh
lqj{kk esa Hkkjr esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk dh A fczVsu us bl uo&mifuos'kokn
dh voLFkk esa Hkkjr ij vf/kd rhoz fu;a=.k dh 'kq:vkr dhA vf/kd etcwr] dk;Zdq'ky
,oa O;kid iz'kklu] fujadq'k fdarq fir`or rkuk'kkgh rFkk dV~Vjoknh vkSj
izfrfØ;koknh rkdrksa dks izJ; nsus dh uhfr }kjk Hkkjr ij vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkj
dks LFkk;h j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA mifuos'kokn dh bl r`rh; voLFkkk dh
fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&
d- Hkkjr
esa fczfV'k iwath dh lqj{kk vc fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk igyk y{; FkhA
[k- ,f'k;k
vkSj vQzhdk esa Hkh fczfV'k lkezkT; dh lqj{kk] foLrkj vkSj lqn`<+hdj.k ds
fy, Hkkjrh; lsuk dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k vkSj Hkkjr ij vius lkezkT; dks vf/kdkf/kd
O;kid cukdj Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd vkRe fuHkZjrk ds iz;kl dks nck;k x;kA
x- Hkkjrh;ksa
esa iui jgh Lo&'kklu vkSj jktuhfrd Lora=rk dh bPNk ds vc iwjh rjg neu }kjk
dqpyus dh uhfr viuk;h xbZA
mifuos'kokn ds izHkko&
Hkkjr
esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn us Hkkjr dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuhfrd izR;sd {ks=
esa izHkkfor fd;kA Hkkjrh; thou vius O;fDrxr vkSj lkewfgd :i esa mifuos'kokn dh
lHkh n'kkvksa esa fons'kh lRrk ds euekus 'kks"k.k dk f'kdkj gqvk vkSj yEcs
le; rd vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us gekjh ewyHkwr lajpuk ij fofo/k izHkko MkysA bu
izHkkoksa dks vkfFkZd] lekftd ,oa jktuhfrd ifjizs{; esa ns[ks tkus dh vko';drk
gS&
1-
vkfFkZd izHkko& mifuos'kokn
vkfFkZd ykHkksa ds fy, ykxw dh xbZ ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk gS vr%
LokHkkfod :i ls mlds lcls vf/kd izHkko vkfFkZd {ks= ij gh fn[kkbZ iM+rs gSaA
Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn us vius izR;sd pj.k esa ;gka adh vFkZO;oLFkk ds izR;sd
igyw&d`f"k] m|ksx] oxZ] vkfFkZd n'kk rFkk jk"Vªh; vk; dks
izHkkfor fd;kA
d- mifuos'kokn
ds izkjfEHkd nkSj us gh Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd m|ksxksa dks lekIr dj fn;kA Hkkjrh;
gLr f'kfYi;ksa dks de ls de dher ij vius fy, dke djus dks ck/; djds rFkk mUgsa
Å¡ph dherksa ij dPpk eky [kjhnus ij foo'k djds nksgjs 'kks"k.k }kjk lekIr
dj fn;kA vkS|kSfxd dzkafr ds ckn ds nkSj esa Hkkjr dks baXyS.M ds vkS|ksfxd
mRiknksa dk cktkj cuk fn;k x;k vkSj ;gka ds yksxksa dks fczfV'k vk;krksa ij
fuHkZj gks tkuk iM+kA
[k- Hkkjrh;
d`"kd dks vR;f/kd Hkwfe jktLo ds fu/kkZj.k] tehankjh O;oLFkk rFkk Hkwfe
cankscLrksa }kjk vf/kdkf/kd nfjnz cuk;k x;k vkSj og d`"kd ls [ksfrgj etnwj
curk pykA
x- Hkkjr
esa d`f"k ds {ks= esa ,d uhou izfdz;k dk tUe gqvk ftls d`f"k dk
O;olk;hdj.k dgk x;kA blds varxZr Hkkjrh; d`f"k esa udnh Qlyksa dk izfr'kr
c<+k] Hkkjrh; d`f"k dk cktkj vUrjkZ"Vªh; gqvk rFkk Hkkjr essa
iwathoknh d`f"k dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA fdarq ;g leLr izfØ;k Hkkjrh; d`"kd
ds fy, vfufPNr rFkk Fkksih x;h O;oLFkk dk ifj.kke Fkh ftlus mlds 'kks"k.k
esa o`f) gh dhA
?k- mifuos'kokn
us vius izR;sd nkSj esa Hkkjr ds ijEijkxr xzkeh.k vkfFkZd <kaps dks ifjofrZr
fd;k ftlls vkRefuHkZj xzkeh.k O;oLFkk lekIr gqbZ rFkk Hkkjr dh cgqla[;d
turk
(d`"kd vkSj NksVs dkjhxj) vYila[;d yksxksa (tehankj vkSj egktu) }kjk 'kksf"kr gqbZA
(d`"kd vkSj NksVs dkjhxj) vYila[;d yksxksa (tehankj vkSj egktu) }kjk 'kksf"kr gqbZA
M- vkSifuosf'kd
Hkkjr esa vkfFkZd voLFkk yxkrkj cnrj gksrh xbZ ftldk ifjp; yxkrkj iM+rs mu
vdkyksa esa feyrk gS tks fczfV'k 'kklu ds izkjEHk ls Hkkjr dh Lora=rk izkfIr rd
yxkrkj fofHkUu {ks=ksa es IkM+rs jgsA bu vdkyksa dk ,d ize[qk dkj.k Fkk&
vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu ds varxZr d`"kd dh cngkyh] dqVhj m|ksxksa dk lekiu]
iz'kklu }kjk ywV&[klksV rFkk [kk|kUu mRiknu esa yxkrkj dehA
p- vkSifuosf'kd
'kklu dh uhfr;ksa us Hkkjr esa m|ksxksa dh LFkkiuk ,oa fodkl dks jksds j[kkk
vkSj ;gka dh vFkZO;oLFkk dks d`f"k vk/kkfjr xzkeh.k vFkZO;oLFkk cuk, j[kkA
vkSifuosf'kd
vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ds dqN ldkjkRed ifj.kke Hkh gq,&vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us
Hkkjr esa jsyos vkSj Mkd&rkj] cSad] chek rFkk vk/kqfud iwathokn ls izHkkfor
vkS|ksfxd O;oLFkk dh 'kq:vkr dhA ;|fi bu lc dk y{; lkezkT;oknh O;oLFkk dh mUufr
Fkk fdarq budk Hkkjrh; lekt ds vk/kqfudhdj.k esa Hkh ;ksxnku jgkA bu uhfr;ksa
us iwjs Hkkjr dks ,d tSlh vkfFkZd leL;k,a&d`f"k laca/kh leL;k,a] xjhch]
csjkstxkjh vkfn nh ftuls Hkkjr ds jk"Vªh; vkfFkZd ,dhdj.k dk
ekxZ iz'kLr gqvkA
2-
lkekftd izHkko& mifuos'kokn
us Hkkjrh; lkekftd <kaps esa Hkh egRoiw.kZ ifjorZuksa dh :ijs[kk j[khA
mifuos'kokn }kjk Hkkjr dh vkfFkZd lajpuk esa yk, x, ifjorZuksa us ;gka dh
lkekftd lajpuk dks izHkkfor fd;k&
d- Hkkjrh;
xzkeksa ds vkRefuHkZj Lo:i ds fo?kVu ls ogka ds lekftd laca/k Hkh ifjofrZr gq,
vkSj vc lkekftd laca/kksa ds u, Lo:i dk tUe gqvkA
[k- Hkkjrh;
xzkeksa esa tehankj] vuqifLFkr HkwLokeh (tks 'kgjksa esa jgrs Fks vkSj
vius xqek'rksa ds ek/;e ls xkao ls Hkw&jktLo dh olwyh djrs Fks)] iV~Vsnkj]
dk'rdkj ekfyd] [ksfrgj etnwj] NksVs O;kikjh ,oa lwn[kksaj egktu tSls u, oxksZa
dk mn; mifuos'kokn dk gh ifj.kke FkkA
x- 'kgjh
thou esa foRrh; iwathifr] m|ksxifr] vkS|ksfxd etnwj] vk/kqfud iwathoknh O;kikjh
,oa nqdkunkj] MkWDVj] odhy] i=dkj] f'k{kd tSls is'ksoj oxksZa dk mn; Hkh
mifuos'kokn ds dkj.k gqvk tks dkykarj esa Hkkjrh; lekt ds egRoiw.kZ LraHk cusA
?k- is'ksoj
oxZ esa is'kkxr lkekftd psruk dk mn; Hkh mifuos'koknh 'kklu ds ifj.kkeLo:i gh
gqvkA bl lkekftd psruk us Lora= Hkkjr esa jktuhfrd ncko lewgksa dk :i ys fy;kA
M- Hkkjr
esa tkrh; laxBuksa dk mn; Hkh vkSifuosf'kd O;oLFkk esa vkfFkZd jktuhfrd ykHkksa
ds fy, ncko cukus dh vko';drk dk gh ifj.kke gS ftlus vkt rd Hkkjrh; lekt dks
fo[kafMr j[kk gS vkSj jktuhfr dks izHkkfor fd;k gSA
p- Hkkjrh;
lekt esa lkaiznkf;drk ds fo"k dk mn; ,oa fodkl vkSifuosf'kd
vFkZO;oLFkk dk LokHkkfod ifj.kke Fkk ftls vkSifuosf'kd 'kkldksa us QwV Mkydj
jkt djus dh uhfr }kjk iqf"ir&iYyfor fd;kA
3- jktuhfrd
izHkko & vkSifuosf'kd
'kklu us yacs le; rd Hkkjr esa ekStwn jgdj vius izR;{k ,oa vizR;{k ifj.kkeksa
ls Hkkjr dks ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr dk :i Hkh fn;k vkSj bUgha RkRoksa us Hkkjrh;
jktuhfr dks og Lo:i Hkh iznku fd;k tks ges vkt fn[kkbZ nsrk gS&
d- mifuos'koknh
'kkldksa us 'kklu dh lqfo/kk ds fy, Hkkjr dks ,d lw= esa cka/kk rFkk ,d tSlh
iz'kklfud O;oLFkk ykxw dh ftlls Hkkjrh;ksa esa Hkh jktuhfrd bdkbZ gksus dh
psruk tkx`r gqbZ vkSj Hkkjr dk ,d jk"Vª ds :i esa fuekZ.k laHko gqvkA
[k- vaxzstksa
}kjk ykxw f'k{kk iz.kkyh us Hkkjrh;ksa dks yksdra= ,oa Lokra=~; psruk ls ifjfpr
djk;k ftlls Hkkjrh;ksa dks Hkh vius lekt ,oa jkT; dks yksdrkaf=d O;oLFkk esa
ykus dh izsj.kk feyhA
x- vkSifuosf'kd
vf/kdkfj;ksa }kjk Hkkjr ds yksxksa ij fd, tkus okys vR;kpkjksa] viekutud
O;ogkjksa us Hkkjrh;ksa esa jktuhfrd laxBu dh bPNk dks txk;k rFkk
dkaxzsl ds usr`Ro esa Hkkjr ,d jktuhfrd laxBu cukA
?k- Hkkjr
ds yksdra= rFkk orZeku jktuhfrd&iz'kklfud Lo:i ij fczfV'k O;oLFkk dk
vR;f/kd izHkko mifuos'kokn dh gh nsu gSSA
Subscribe to:
Comments (Atom)