Indian Polity MCQ

1.The Chief Minister of a Union Territory where such a set up exists, is appointed by the

(a)Lt, Governor

{b) Majority party in Legislature

(c) President

(d) Prime Minister

Answer: Lt. Governor

,2. In case a President dies while in office, the vice President can act as President for

maximum period of

(a) 1 years

(b) 3 months

(c) 6 months

(d) 2 years

Answer; 6 months

3.The Union Council of Ministers consists of

(a) Cabinet Ministers, Minister of State and Deputy Ministers

(b) Cabinet Ministers and Chief Ministers of the States

(c) Prime Minister

(d) Cabinet Ministers

Answer: Cabinet Ministers, Minister of State and Deputy Ministers

4.Who administers the oath of office to the Presi$ent of India before he enters upon the office ?

(a) Chief Justice I

(b) Speaker t

(c) Vice President

(d) Prime Minister

Answer: Chief Justice

5.Who among the following enjoys the rank of a Cabinet Minister of the Indian Union?

(a) None of the Above

(b) Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commission

(c) Deputy Chairman, Rajya Sabha

(d) Secretary to the Government of lndia

Answer: Deputy Chairman of the Planning Commissioner

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Need for diversity in the judiciary

 Need for diversity in the judiciary

A diverse judiciary is essential for legitimacy, fairness, and effective justice in pluralistic societies like India. It builds public trust by reflecting societal demographics, brings varied life experiences to reduce biases, enriches decision-making, and ensures courts better address issues affecting marginalized groups.

Key arguments include:

Legitimacy & trust — Underrepresented groups perceive the system as fairer and more inclusive.

Better rulings — Diverse perspectives challenge assumptions and lead to nuanced outcomes, especially in social justice cases.

Reduced bias — Broader backgrounds counter dominant viewpoints.

In India, the higher judiciary (Supreme Court and High Courts) remains disproportionately upper-caste, male, and majority-community dominated, despite no formal reservations for these posts (unlike in subordinate courts).

Recent data (as of early 2026):

From 2021 to January 2026, of 593 High Court appointments, only ~4% SC (26), ~2% ST (14), ~14% OBC (80), with nearly 80% from upper castes.

Women: ~14–17% in recent High Court appointments; currently ~110–130 women in High Courts (out of ~800+ sanctioned strength), and just 1–2 in the Supreme Court (out of 33–34 judges).

Religious minorities: <5–6% in higher judiciary.

Since 2018–2024/2026 periods show similar patterns: ~20% SC/ST/OBC combined in some datasets, women <15%, minorities <5%.

Supreme Court: Dominated by upper-caste Hindu men; limited SC (1–3), OBC (few), no ST, and minimal women representation.

This imbalance persists amid huge pendency (>90,000 in Supreme Court, crores overall) and low judge-population ratio.

Recent developments include:

A Private Member's Constitution (Amendment) Bill, 2026 (introduced by DMK MP P. Wilson) proposing proportional representation for SC, ST, OBC, women, and religious minorities in Supreme Court/High Court appointments, plus regional Supreme Court benches (e.g., in Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai) to improve access and address backlog/diversity.

Government efforts encourage collegiums to consider diversity, but no mandatory quotas; appointments remain collegium-driven.

Counterarguments note that merit and impartiality should remain primary, but evidence shows diversity strengthens (not weakens) these by broadening viewpoints without quotas overriding qualifications.

Overall, greater diversity—via transparent processes, wider talent outreach, and potential reforms—is vital for an equitable, credible judiciary that upholds constitutional values like equality in India's diverse society. 

Tag:judiciary, diversity, representation, justice, courts, inclusion, legal system

Exploring the importance of diversity in the judiciary to ensure fairness, representation, and public trust in the legal system.

Exploring the importance of diversity in the judiciary to ensure fairness, representation, and public trust in the legal system.

 

A diverse judiciary is essential for legitimacy, fairness, and effective justice in pluralistic societies like India. It builds public trust by reflecting societal demographics, brings varied life experiences to reduce biases, enriches decision-making, and ensures courts better address issues affecting marginalized groups.

Key arguments include:

Legitimacy & trust — Underrepresented groups perceive the system as fairer and more inclusive.

Better rulings — Diverse perspectives challenge assumptions and lead to nuanced outcomes, especially in social justice cases.

Reduced bias — Broader backgrounds counter dominant viewpoints.

In India, the higher judiciary (Supreme Court and High Courts) remains disproportionately upper-caste, male, and majority-community dominated, despite no formal reservations for these posts (unlike in subordinate courts).

Recent data (as of early 2026):

From 2021 to January 2026, of 593 High Court appointments, only ~4% SC (26), ~2% ST (14), ~14% OBC (80), with nearly 80% from upper castes.

Women: ~14–17% in recent High Court appointments; currently ~110–130 women in High Courts (out of ~800+ sanctioned strength), and just 1–2 in the Supreme Court (out of 33–34 judges).

Religious minorities: <5–6% in higher judiciary.

Since 2018–2024/2026 periods show similar patterns: ~20% SC/ST/OBC combined in some datasets, women <15%, minorities <5%.

Supreme Court: Dominated by upper-caste Hindu men; limited SC (1–3), OBC (few), no ST, and minimal women representation.

This imbalance persists amid huge pendency (>90,000 in Supreme Court, crores overall) and low judge-population ratio.

Recent developments include:

A Private Member's Constitution (Amendment) Bill, 2026 (introduced by DMK MP P. Wilson) proposing proportional representation for SC, ST, OBC, women, and religious minorities in Supreme Court/High Court appointments, plus regional Supreme Court benches (e.g., in Kolkata, Mumbai, Chennai) to improve access and address backlog/diversity.

Government efforts encourage collegiums to consider diversity, but no mandatory quotas; appointments remain collegium-driven.

Counterarguments note that merit and impartiality should remain primary, but evidence shows diversity strengthens (not weakens) these by broadening viewpoints without quotas overriding qualifications.

Overall, greater diversity—via transparent processes, wider talent outreach, and potential reforms—is vital for an equitable, credible judiciary that upholds constitutional values like equality in India's diverse society

Tag:judiciary, diversity, representation, justice, courts, inclusion, legal system 

The Reality of Indian Democracy: Heading into 2026 Challenges and Opportunities

 

As of mid-February 2026, India's democracy remains a global paradox—boasting the world's largest electorate, rapid economic growth, and ambitious international positioning, while facing persistent critiques of institutional strain, backsliding tendencies, and deepening inequalities. With Prime Minister Narendra Modi's BJP consolidating power through recent state victories and gearing up for key 2026 assembly elections, the system delivers electoral participation and development scale but grapples with questions of accountability, minority protections, and corporate influence. Recent events, from the India AI Impact Summit to Republic Day reflections, highlight both aspirations and tensions.

Electoral Resilience and Dominant-Party Stability

India's democratic core—massive, largely free elections—continues to function effectively. The 2024 Lok Sabha results showed voter pushback against overreach, with the opposition INDIA bloc gaining ground. In 2025, BJP triumphs in states like Bihar reinforced its organizational edge, setting the stage for 2026 polls in multiple states and a Union Territory. Analysts describe a return to a "dominant party era," where the opposition struggles for cohesion amid BJP's post-Bihar momentum.

Public trust in electoral processes remains relatively high, bolstered by India's chairship of International IDEA's Council of Member States in 2026. Represented by Chief Election Commissioner Gyanesh Kumar, India leads under the theme "Democracy for an Inclusive, Peaceful, Resilient & Sustainable World." Initiatives like the India International Conference on Democracy and Election Management (January 2026) emphasize reimagining democracy through strong, independent electoral bodies and grassroots renewal.

Prime Minister Modi frequently asserts that "democracy delivers" in India, citing stability, speed, and scale in governance. Poverty reduction, infrastructure push, and economic reforms (updated GST, labor codes) support this, positioning India as the fastest-growing major economy despite global headwinds like US tariffs.

Global Ambitions vs. Domestic Realities

India's international profile shines brighter. At the India AI Impact Summit (inaugurated February 2026), Modi called for "democratizing AI" via the M.A.N.A.V. vision—emphasizing Moral and Ethical Systems, Accountable Governance, National Sovereignty, Accessible and Inclusive development, and Valid/Legitimate frameworks. He highlighted India's unique mix of diversity, demography, and democracy, arguing successful AI models here can scale globally, especially for the Global South.

Republic Day 2026 reflections urged deepening democracy at the "last mile"—empowering Gram Sabhas, municipalities, and cooperatives for just, sustainable progress. Internationally, India navigates multipolar ties adeptly, balancing partnerships with the US, Europe, Russia, and others.

Yet domestic critiques persist. Freedom House rates India "Partly Free," noting discriminatory policies, minority persecution (especially Muslims), and pressures on civil society, media, and critics. V-Dem labels it an "electoral autocracy," with declines in judicial independence, civic engagement, and credible elections over recent years.

Analyses point to rising inequalities, corporate-political nexus (via funding and policy influence), and hollowed-out representation. Some describe citizens reduced to voters, with legislative processes becoming formalities and checks on power weakening. The Supreme Court recently criticized state "freebie" culture amid fiscal deficits, urging focus on employment over doles.

Public discourse reflects frustration: debates over regulatory capture, caste politics, and accountability gaps. AI governance raises alarms too—official "democratizing" rhetoric contrasts with concerns over unregulated deployment enabling surveillance, hate speech, and exclusion of marginalized groups amid perceived democratic backsliding.

Key Tests Ahead in 2026

Upcoming state elections will gauge opposition revival and BJP dominance. Economic pressures from global tariffs and sanctions could spill into politics. Bold resolutions floated include institutional strengthening, media objectivity, curbing populism, and cooperative federalism.

India's rise—economic, demographic, diasporic—positions it as a counter to authoritarian models, but durability hinges on domestic institutional health. As one view puts it, the future may be "Indian" in a multipolar world, yet success depends on balancing decisiveness with accountability, growth with equity.

In 2026, Indian democracy is resilient yet strained: delivering elections and ambition globally while wrestling with inclusion, oversight, and renewal at home. Whether it self-corrects through reforms, grassroots empowerment, and vigilant engagement will define its trajectory—not just as the world's largest democracy, but as a sustainable one.

Financial Inclusion in Developing Countries

 

Financial inclusion means providing affordable access to essential financial services—like accounts, savings, credit, payments, and insurance—to underserved populations in developing countries. It helps reduce poverty, boost economic growth, empower women, and build resilience against shocks.

Recent Progress (as of 2024 data from World Bank's Global Findex 2025)

Globally, 79% of adults now have a financial account (up from 74% in 2021 and 51% in 2011).

In low- and middle-income economies (developing countries), 75% of adults have an account—an 80% increase since 2011.

Formal saving surged: 40% of adults in developing economies saved in a financial account in 2024 (up 16 percentage points since 2021—the fastest rise in over a decade).

Gender gap narrowed to just 5 percentage points in developing economies, with 73% of women holding accounts.

Digital payments are widespread: 61% of adults in low- and middle-income countries made or received them.

Mobile money has been transformative, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, where adoption has driven massive gains in access without traditional banks.

Remaining Challenges

Despite gains, about 1.3 billion adults remain unbanked worldwide, many in developing regions. Barriers include high costs, limited infrastructure, low financial literacy, gender norms, and exclusion of the poorest and rural populations. Many accounts remain inactive, and financial resilience is low—only about one-third can cover expenses for over two months if income is lost.

The Path Forward

Digital innovations, national strategies, and public-private partnerships continue to drive progress. The focus is shifting from mere access to meaningful usage, financial health, and outcomes like women's empowerment and climate resilience. With continued investment, developing countries can close remaining gaps and unlock broader economic potential.

Origin and Development of Guilds in Pre Mauryan and Mauryan Period

The sixth century B.C. is unique in ancient Indian history for emergence of the sixteen mahajanapadas which led to the transformation of loyalty from ‘tribal organization to politico-geographical units’. The use of writing helped in the codification of laws and in accountancy, and the introduction of coin-age, in the collection of taxes, payments of wages and also in the development of trade and commerce. The large scale use of iron tools and implements contributed to a considerable development in agriculture production, and transport. Second urbanization brought about improvements in the socioeconomic conditions of traders and artisans. Gradually, cultivators, herdsmen, moneylenders, traders, and artisans had come to from their own organizations to which the state gave recognition, and their spokes men wielded considerable authority, and were consulted by kings. As a result of close association with the king and organization of crafts into guilds there was greater specialization in different branches of industry, e.g., gold, copper, silver and iron objects, earlier manufactured by the same smith, become specialized fields of different smiths. This led to the development of crafts, trade and commerce. According to Nigrodha jataka , some state control over guilds is known from the appointment of Bhandagarika, with ‘judgeship over all guilds’, and also through sreshthis, some of whom were guild heads and visited the king’s court in official or semi-official capacity.

This period witnessed the establishment of a vast and fairly well-knit empire with quite a uniform and efficient system of administration. The Mauryan state regulated trade and commerce and brought under its monopoly the mineral resources of land and controlled to quite some extant the economic activities of production and distribution.

The ‘Arthasastra’ fixes rates of profits on indigenous and foreign goods, meticulously listed dutiable articles and prescribes punishment for violation of rules including artisans, default in the delivery of goods in time. Government officials were to keep records of trades and crafts and related transactions and conventions of the guilds

Instead of such restrictions, some facilities were granted by the state. The long distance high-ways (mainly from Pataliputra to Pushkalavati, via Taxila) constructed and maintained largely by the state facilitated greater mobility of the people, and easy transportation of goods and surplus production from one region to another. The state provided the guilds with separate areas in the town for running their trades and crafts. The guilds could make deposit with the competent agencies, which they got back in the time of financial distress, and they also advanced loan to merchants, as per evidence of the ‘Arthasastra’ side by side, during this period the state collected revenue in cash or kinds. In addition to taxes in cash, the artisans, many of whom must have been members of the guilds, also paid taxes in the form of labour.

साम्राज्यवाद

lkezkT;okn

vFkZ& lkezkT;okn 'kCn dk iz;ksx usiksfy;u cksukikVZ (1700&1815) ds le; ;wjksi esa izpfyr gqvkA rRdkyhu 19oha lnh ds izkjaHk esa bldk vFkZ ,d ns'k }kjk nwljs jk"Vª ds izfr vkØked O;ogkj ls yxk;k tkrk FkkA ijarq lkekU;r% ;g ,d izfØ;k gS ftlesa fodflr iwathoknh jk"Vªksa us vfodflr jk"Vªksa ij viuk jktuhfrd&vkfFkZd izHkqRo LFkkfir fd;kA lezkT;okn og izfØ;k gS ftlds }kjk fodflr iwathoknh jk"Vªksa us vfodflr rFkk iwthokn iwoZ dh voLFkk esa jgs ns'kksa ij fot; izkIr djus ,oa mu ij izHkqRo LFkkfir djus dk dne mBk;kA lkezkT;okn ml n'kk dh vksj ladsr djrk gS ftlesa fotsrk iwathoknh ns'k vius jktuhfrd ,oa vkfFkZd izHkqRo dh LFkkiuk foftr ns'k ij djrk gSA

Û       mifuos'kokn lkezkT;okn dh lg;ksxh izfØ;k gS ftlesa foftr jk"Vª fotsrk dk mifuos'k cu tkrk gS vFkkZr foftr jk"Vª ds lHkh lalk/kuksa dk iz;ksx fotsrk jk"Vª vius fgrksa dh flf) gsrq djrk gSA

vFkZ& lkezkT;okn 'kCn dk iz;ksx usiksfy;u cksukikVZ (1700&1815) ds le; ;wjksi esa izpfyr gqvkA rRdkyhu 19oha lnh ds izkjaHk esa bldk vFkZ ,d ns'k }kjk nwljs jk"Vª ds izfr vkØked O;ogkj ls yxk;k tkrk FkkA ijarq lkekU;r% ;g ,d izfØ;k gS ftlesa fodflr iwathoknh jk"Vªksa us vfodflr jk"Vªksa ij viuk jktuhfrd&vkfFkZd izHkqRo LFkkfir fd;kA lezkT;okn og izfØ;k gS ftlds }kjk fodflr iwathoknh jk"Vªksa us vfodflr rFkk iwthokn iwoZ dh voLFkk esa jgs ns'kksa ij fot; izkIr djus ,oa mu ij izHkqRo LFkkfir djus dk dne mBk;kA lkezkT;okn ml n'kk dh vksj ladsr djrk gS ftlesa fotsrk iwathoknh ns'k vius jktuhfrd ,oa vkfFkZd izHkqRo dh LFkkiuk foftr ns'k ij djrk gSA

Û       mifuos'kokn lkezkT;okn dh lg;ksxh izfØ;k gS ftlesa foftr jk"Vª fotsrk dk mifuos'k cu tkrk gS vFkkZr foftr jk"Vª ds lHkh lalk/kuksa dk iz;ksx fotsrk jk"Vª vius fgrksa dh flf) gsrq djrk gSA

Û       bl izdkj lkezkT;okn rFkk mifuos'kokn nks vyx&vyx izfØ;k,a ugha gSA okLro es foLrkjokn dks viukus okys ns'k dh uhfr lkezkT;okn gS vkSj mldk tks ifj.kke foftr jk"Vª dks >syuk iM+rk gS og mifuos'kokn gSA

mifuos'kokn dh izd`fr&

        mifuos'kokn viuh izd`fr ls ,d 'kks"kd fLFkfr gS ftlesa lkezkT;oknh ns'k vius fgr lk/ku ds fy, mifuos'k ds lalk/kuksa dk mi;ksx djrk gSA bl fgr lk/ku ds fy, mifuos'k ds jktuhfrd] vkfFkZd ,oa lkekftd laxBu esa bl izdkj cnyko yk, tkrs gSa ftuls iwathoknh ns'k ds fgrksa dks iwjk djus esa lqfo/kk gksA iwathoknh ns'k mifuos'kokn dh vyx&vyx voLFkkvksa esa mifuos'k dh thou&'kSyh dks vyx&vyx fn'kkvksa ls izHkkfor djrk gS rkfd mlds vius LokFkksZa iwfrZ gks ldsA iwathoknh ns'k mifuos'kksa dh thou 'kSyh dks iwjh rjg iwoZ iwathoknh O;oLFkkk esa Hkh ugha jgus nsrs vkSj u gh mls iwjh rjg iwathoknh O;oLFkk esa izos'k djus nsrk gSA ,slk blfy, fd;k tkrk gS fd iwathoknh ns'k vius vkS|ksfxd ,oa iwathoknh fodkl ds fy, mifuos'k ds dPps eky ,oa Je 'kfDr dk 'kks"k.k dj lds vkSj mifuos'k lnk ds fy, mifuos'k gh cuk jgdj iwathoknh ns'k ds mRiknuksa dk cktkj cuk jgsA bl izdkj mifuos'kokn fo'o ds vfodflr ns'kksa dks fo'o iwathoknh O;oLFkk dk ,d vfHkUu vax rks cukrk gS fdarq mls ,slh n'kk esa j[krk gS fd og iwathoknh mRiknu ds fodkl ;k vkS|kSfxd Økafr ls lh/kk laca/k u cuk ldsA dqy feykdj mifuos'kokn }kjk mifuos'kksa ds fodkl dks vo:) j[kk tkrk gS rkfd ogka okLrfod iwathoknh fodflr u gksA

mifuos'kokn dh izeq[k fo'ks"krk,a&

1-      lkezkT;oknh 'kfDr }kjk v/khuLFk ns'k ds jktuhfrd] vkfFkZd ra= ij vf/kdkjA

2-      mifuos'k dk fofHkUu Lrjksa ij 'kks"k.k djds mlds lalk/kuksa dk lkezkT;oknh 'kfDr }kjk Lofgr esa iz;ksxA

3-      mifuos'k ds fodkl esa ml gn rd :fp ysuk ftlls lkezkT;oknh 'kfDr ds vius fgrksa dh iwfrZ gksA

4-      lkezkT;okn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa tSls &of.kdokn] Lora= O;kikj uhfr rFkk foRr iwathokn esa 'kks"k.k dh uohu iz.kkyh dk fodkl ftlls dqy iwathoknh ykHk vf/kdre gks ldsA

5-      mifuos'k dks lnk ds fy, mifuos'k cuk, j[kus dk iz;kl djuk rkfd iwathoknh 'kfDr dks vius fgr lk/ku esa ck/kk u igqapsA

6-      ,slh jktuhfrd] vkfFkZd rFkk lkekftd uhfr;ksa ,oa ijaijkvksa dks c<+kok nsuk ftlls mifuos'k dPps eky dk lzksr rFkk iwathoknh rS;kj eky dk cktkj cu ldsA

mifuos'kokn dh voLFkk,a&

mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS & vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g 'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h ,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&

1-      izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)

2-      f}rh; voLFkk (1813&1860)

3-      r`rh; voLFkk (1860&1947)

1- izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij ,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY; /kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls izkIr /ku dks gh  Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl  rjg ykxr esa deh vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjrh; mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds lk/ku FksA

[k-     fu;kZr esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA

x-      daiuh dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA

?k-      bl voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk 'kks"k.k gqvkA

M-      bl iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd, x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA

mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS & vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g 'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h ,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&

1-      izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)

2-      f}rh; voLFkk (1813&1860)

3-      r`rh; voLFkk (1860&1947)

1- izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij ,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY; /kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls izkIr /ku dks gh  Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl  rjg ykxr esa deh vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjrh; mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds lk/ku FksA

[k-     fu;kZr esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA

x-      daiuh dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA

?k-      bl voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk 'kks"k.k gqvkA

M-      bl iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd, x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA

p-      bl dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA

2- f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[; ;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk  ds fy, Hkkjr esa ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu }kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh uhfr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj Hkkjrh; yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd fgrksa dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      vkS|ksfxd Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA

[k-     eqDr O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA

x-      Hkkjr esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA

?k-      foLr`r ,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA

M-      vkfFkZd ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA

p-      Hkkjr esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA 

mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS & vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g 'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h ,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&

1-      izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)

2-      f}rh; voLFkk (1813&1860)

3-      r`rh; voLFkk (1860&1947)

1- izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij ,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY; /kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls izkIr /ku dks gh  Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl  rjg ykxr esa deh vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjrh; mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds lk/ku FksA

[k-     fu;kZr esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA

x-      daiuh dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA

?k-      bl voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk 'kks"k.k gqvkA

M-      bl iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd, x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA

p-      bl dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA

2- f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[; ;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk  ds fy, Hkkjr esa ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu }kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh uhfr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj Hkkjrh; yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd fgrksa dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      vkS|ksfxd Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA

[k-     eqDr O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA

x-      Hkkjr esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA

?k-      foLr`r ,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA

M-      vkfFkZd ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA

p-      Hkkjr esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA 

N-      bl nkSj esa Hkkjrh; laLd`fr vkSj lekt dh rhoz vkykspuk dh xbZ rFkk fczfV'k 'kklu dks Hkkjrh;ksa esa lH;rk ds izlkj dk lk/ku fu:fir fd;k x;kA

t-      Hkkjr ls vfrjsd /ku dks fczVsu LFkkukarfjr fd;k tkuk bl nkSj esa Hkh mifuos'kokn dk izeq[k y{k.k cuk jgkA egaxs iz'kklu vkSj vf/kd djkjksi.k us Hkkjrh; yksxksa ds 'kks"k.k dks vf/kdre djus esa lg;ksx fn;kA

3- r`rh; voLFkk& fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa 1860 rd vk;s ifjorZuksa ds ifj.kke Lo:i Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh r`rh; voLFkk izkjEHk gqbZA bl voLFkk ds izkjEHk gksus ds dqN cqfu;knh dkj.k Fks& vkS|ksfxd dzkafr ds ;wjksi ,oa vesafjdk ds ns'kksa esa izlkj ds dkj.k fczVsu dh vkS|ksfxd Js"Brk lekIr gks xbZ] uohu 'kfDr ds lk/kuksa fctyh rFkk isVªksfy;e ds iz;ksx ls ,d uohu rduhdh Økafr dk mn; gqvk rFkk ifjogu ds varjkZ"Vªh; lk/kuksa esa dzkafr ds dkj.k fo'o cktkj dk vf/kd ,dhdj.k gqvkA bu dkj.kksa vkSj mifuos'kksa ls iwath ds vf/kdkf/kd nksgu ds ifj.kkeLo:i iawthoknh ns'kksa esa cM+h ek=k esa iwath dk lap; gqvkA vc bl iwath ds fuos'k ds fy, iqu% ,d izfrLi/kkZ 'kq: gbZ ftlesa mifuos'kksa dk foRrh; iwathokn ds }kjk 'kks"k.k fd;k x;kA bl foRr iwathokn us iqu% fo'o ds foHkktu vkSj uo&mifuos'khdj.k dh izfØ;k dks tUe fn;k tks Hkkjr esa 1860 ds ckn izkjEHk gqbZA

        bl voLFkk ds nkSjku lalkj esa fczVsu dh fLFkfr dks izfr}Unh iwathoknh ns'kksa }kjk yxkrkj pqukSrh nh xbZ FkhA Hkkjr ij viuk fu;a=.k n`<+ djus ds fy, vc blus l'kDr iz;Ru fd,A mnkj lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ka vc izfrfØ;kRed lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ksa esa cny x;hA ;g fyVu] MQfju] ykalMkmu rFkk dtZu ds ok;ljk; ds dky esa izfrfcfEcr gqvkA izfr}fUn;ksa dks ckgj j[kus ds fy, fczfV'k iwath dks Hkkjr esa vkd`"V djus ds fy, rFkk bls lqj{kk iznku djus ds fy, Hkkjr esa jsyos] Hkkjrh; ljdkj ds _.k] O;kikj o dqN gn rd ckxku] dks;yk [kku] twV dkj[kkuksa] tgktjkuh rFkk cSafdx esa yxkbZ x;h FkhA

        bl nkSj eas iqu% iwathoknh la?k"kZ izkjEHk gqvk ftlesa fczVsu ds lkezkT; dh lqj{kk esa Hkkjr esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk dh A fczVsu us bl uo&mifuos'kokn dh voLFkk esa Hkkjr ij vf/kd rhoz fu;a=.k dh 'kq:vkr dhA vf/kd etcwr] dk;Zdq'ky ,oa O;kid iz'kklu] fujadq'k fdarq fir`or rkuk'kkgh rFkk dV~Vjoknh vkSj izfrfØ;koknh rkdrksa dks izJ; nsus dh uhfr }kjk Hkkjr ij vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkj dks LFkk;h j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA mifuos'kokn dh bl r`rh; voLFkkk dh fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjr esa fczfV'k iwath dh lqj{kk vc fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk igyk y{; FkhA

[k-     ,f'k;k vkSj vQzhdk esa Hkh fczfV'k lkezkT; dh lqj{kk] foLrkj vkSj lqn`<+hdj.k ds fy, Hkkjrh; lsuk dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k vkSj Hkkjr ij vius lkezkT; dks vf/kdkf/kd O;kid cukdj Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd vkRe fuHkZjrk ds iz;kl dks nck;k x;kA

x-      Hkkjrh;ksa esa iui jgh Lo&'kklu vkSj jktuhfrd Lora=rk dh bPNk ds vc iwjh rjg neu }kjk dqpyus dh uhfr viuk;h xbZA

mifuos'kokn ds izHkko&

mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS & vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g 'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h ,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&

1-      izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)

2-      f}rh; voLFkk (1813&1860)

3-      r`rh; voLFkk (1860&1947)

1- izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij ,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY; /kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls izkIr /ku dks gh  Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl  rjg ykxr esa deh vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjrh; mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds lk/ku FksA

[k-     fu;kZr esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA

x-      daiuh dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA

?k-      bl voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk 'kks"k.k gqvkA

M-      bl iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd, x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA

p-      bl dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA

2- f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[; ;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk  ds fy, Hkkjr esa ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu }kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh uhfr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj Hkkjrh; yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd fgrksa dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      vkS|ksfxd Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA

[k-     eqDr O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA

x-      Hkkjr esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA

?k-      foLr`r ,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA

M-      vkfFkZd ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA

p-      Hkkjr esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA 

N-      bl nkSj esa Hkkjrh; laLd`fr vkSj lekt dh rhoz vkykspuk dh xbZ rFkk fczfV'k 'kklu dks Hkkjrh;ksa esa lH;rk ds izlkj dk lk/ku fu:fir fd;k x;kA

t-      Hkkjr ls vfrjsd /ku dks fczVsu LFkkukarfjr fd;k tkuk bl nkSj esa Hkh mifuos'kokn dk izeq[k y{k.k cuk jgkA egaxs iz'kklu vkSj vf/kd djkjksi.k us Hkkjrh; yksxksa ds 'kks"k.k dks vf/kdre djus esa lg;ksx fn;kA

3- r`rh; voLFkk& fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa 1860 rd vk;s ifjorZuksa ds ifj.kke Lo:i Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh r`rh; voLFkk izkjEHk gqbZA bl voLFkk ds izkjEHk gksus ds dqN cqfu;knh dkj.k Fks& vkS|ksfxd dzkafr ds ;wjksi ,oa vesafjdk ds ns'kksa esa izlkj ds dkj.k fczVsu dh vkS|ksfxd Js"Brk lekIr gks xbZ] uohu 'kfDr ds lk/kuksa fctyh rFkk isVªksfy;e ds iz;ksx ls ,d uohu rduhdh Økafr dk mn; gqvk rFkk ifjogu ds varjkZ"Vªh; lk/kuksa esa dzkafr ds dkj.k fo'o cktkj dk vf/kd ,dhdj.k gqvkA bu dkj.kksa vkSj mifuos'kksa ls iwath ds vf/kdkf/kd nksgu ds ifj.kkeLo:i iawthoknh ns'kksa esa cM+h ek=k esa iwath dk lap; gqvkA vc bl iwath ds fuos'k ds fy, iqu% ,d izfrLi/kkZ 'kq: gbZ ftlesa mifuos'kksa dk foRrh; iwathokn ds }kjk 'kks"k.k fd;k x;kA bl foRr iwathokn us iqu% fo'o ds foHkktu vkSj uo&mifuos'khdj.k dh izfØ;k dks tUe fn;k tks Hkkjr esa 1860 ds ckn izkjEHk gqbZA

        bl voLFkk ds nkSjku lalkj esa fczVsu dh fLFkfr dks izfr}Unh iwathoknh ns'kksa }kjk yxkrkj pqukSrh nh xbZ FkhA Hkkjr ij viuk fu;a=.k n`<+ djus ds fy, vc blus l'kDr iz;Ru fd,A mnkj lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ka vc izfrfØ;kRed lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ksa esa cny x;hA ;g fyVu] MQfju] ykalMkmu rFkk dtZu ds ok;ljk; ds dky esa izfrfcfEcr gqvkA izfr}fUn;ksa dks ckgj j[kus ds fy, fczfV'k iwath dks Hkkjr esa vkd`"V djus ds fy, rFkk bls lqj{kk iznku djus ds fy, Hkkjr esa jsyos] Hkkjrh; ljdkj ds _.k] O;kikj o dqN gn rd ckxku] dks;yk [kku] twV dkj[kkuksa] tgktjkuh rFkk cSafdx esa yxkbZ x;h FkhA

        bl nkSj eas iqu% iwathoknh la?k"kZ izkjEHk gqvk ftlesa fczVsu ds lkezkT; dh lqj{kk esa Hkkjr esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk dh A fczVsu us bl uo&mifuos'kokn dh voLFkk esa Hkkjr ij vf/kd rhoz fu;a=.k dh 'kq:vkr dhA vf/kd etcwr] dk;Zdq'ky ,oa O;kid iz'kklu] fujadq'k fdarq fir`or rkuk'kkgh rFkk dV~Vjoknh vkSj izfrfØ;koknh rkdrksa dks izJ; nsus dh uhfr }kjk Hkkjr ij vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkj dks LFkk;h j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA mifuos'kokn dh bl r`rh; voLFkkk dh fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjr esa fczfV'k iwath dh lqj{kk vc fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk igyk y{; FkhA

[k-     ,f'k;k vkSj vQzhdk esa Hkh fczfV'k lkezkT; dh lqj{kk] foLrkj vkSj lqn`<+hdj.k ds fy, Hkkjrh; lsuk dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k vkSj Hkkjr ij vius lkezkT; dks vf/kdkf/kd O;kid cukdj Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd vkRe fuHkZjrk ds iz;kl dks nck;k x;kA

x-      Hkkjrh;ksa esa iui jgh Lo&'kklu vkSj jktuhfrd Lora=rk dh bPNk ds vc iwjh rjg neu }kjk dqpyus dh uhfr viuk;h xbZA

mifuos'kokn ds izHkko&

        Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn us Hkkjr dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuhfrd izR;sd {ks= esa izHkkfor fd;kA Hkkjrh; thou vius O;fDrxr vkSj lkewfgd :i esa mifuos'kokn dh lHkh n'kkvksa esa fons'kh lRrk ds euekus 'kks"k.k dk f'kdkj gqvk vkSj yEcs le; rd vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us gekjh ewyHkwr lajpuk ij fofo/k izHkko MkysA bu izHkkoksa dks vkfFkZd] lekftd ,oa jktuhfrd ifjizs{; esa ns[ks tkus dh vko';drk gS&

1- vkfFkZd izHkko& mifuos'kokn vkfFkZd ykHkksa  ds fy, ykxw dh xbZ ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk gS vr% LokHkkfod :i ls mlds lcls vf/kd izHkko vkfFkZd {ks= ij gh fn[kkbZ iM+rs  gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn us vius izR;sd pj.k esa ;gka adh vFkZO;oLFkk ds izR;sd igyw&d`f"k] m|ksx] oxZ] vkfFkZd n'kk rFkk jk"Vªh; vk; dks izHkkfor fd;kA

d-      mifuos'kokn ds izkjfEHkd nkSj us gh Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd m|ksxksa dks lekIr dj fn;kA Hkkjrh; gLr f'kfYi;ksa dks de ls de dher ij vius fy, dke djus dks ck/; djds rFkk mUgsa Å¡ph dherksa ij dPpk eky [kjhnus ij foo'k djds nksgjs 'kks"k.k }kjk lekIr dj fn;kA vkS|kSfxd dzkafr ds ckn ds nkSj esa Hkkjr dks baXyS.M ds vkS|ksfxd mRiknksa dk cktkj cuk fn;k x;k vkSj ;gka ds yksxksa dks fczfV'k vk;krksa ij fuHkZj gks tkuk iM+kA

[k-     Hkkjrh; d`"kd dks vR;f/kd Hkwfe jktLo ds fu/kkZj.k] tehankjh O;oLFkk rFkk Hkwfe cankscLrksa }kjk vf/kdkf/kd nfjnz cuk;k x;k vkSj og d`"kd ls [ksfrgj etnwj curk pykA

x-      Hkkjr esa d`f"k ds {ks= esa ,d uhou izfdz;k dk tUe gqvk ftls d`f"k dk O;olk;hdj.k dgk x;kA blds varxZr Hkkjrh; d`f"k esa udnh Qlyksa dk izfr'kr c<+k] Hkkjrh; d`f"k dk cktkj vUrjkZ"Vªh; gqvk rFkk Hkkjr essa iwathoknh d`f"k dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA fdarq ;g leLr izfØ;k Hkkjrh; d`"kd ds fy, vfufPNr rFkk Fkksih x;h O;oLFkk dk ifj.kke Fkh ftlus mlds 'kks"k.k esa o`f) gh dhA

?k-      mifuos'kokn us vius izR;sd nkSj esa Hkkjr ds ijEijkxr xzkeh.k vkfFkZd <kaps dks ifjofrZr fd;k ftlls vkRefuHkZj xzkeh.k O;oLFkk lekIr gqbZ rFkk Hkkjr dh cgqla[;d turk
(d`"kd vkSj NksVs dkjhxj) vYila[;d yksxksa (tehankj vkSj egktu) }kjk 'kksf"kr gqbZA

M-      vkSifuosf'kd Hkkjr esa vkfFkZd voLFkk yxkrkj cnrj gksrh xbZ ftldk ifjp; yxkrkj iM+rs mu vdkyksa esa feyrk gS tks fczfV'k 'kklu ds izkjEHk ls Hkkjr dh Lora=rk izkfIr rd yxkrkj fofHkUu {ks=ksa es IkM+rs jgsA bu vdkyksa dk ,d ize[qk dkj.k Fkk& vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu ds varxZr d`"kd dh cngkyh] dqVhj m|ksxksa dk lekiu] iz'kklu }kjk ywV&[klksV rFkk [kk|kUu mRiknu esa yxkrkj dehA

p-      vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu dh uhfr;ksa us Hkkjr esa m|ksxksa dh LFkkiuk ,oa fodkl dks jksds j[kkk vkSj ;gka dh vFkZO;oLFkk dks d`f"k vk/kkfjr xzkeh.k vFkZO;oLFkk cuk, j[kkA

        vkSifuosf'kd vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ds dqN ldkjkRed ifj.kke Hkh gq,&vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us Hkkjr esa jsyos vkSj Mkd&rkj] cSad] chek rFkk vk/kqfud iwathokn ls izHkkfor vkS|ksfxd O;oLFkk dh 'kq:vkr dhA ;|fi bu lc dk y{; lkezkT;oknh O;oLFkk dh mUufr Fkk fdarq budk mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS & vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g 'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h ,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&

1-      izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)

2-      f}rh; voLFkk (1813&1860)

3-      r`rh; voLFkk (1860&1947)

1- izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij ,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY; /kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls izkIr /ku dks gh  Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl  rjg ykxr esa deh vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjrh; mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds lk/ku FksA

[k-     fu;kZr esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA

x-      daiuh dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA

?k-      bl voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk 'kks"k.k gqvkA

M-      bl iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd, x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA

p-      bl dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA

2- f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[; ;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk  ds fy, Hkkjr esa ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu }kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh uhfr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj Hkkjrh; yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd fgrksa dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      vkS|ksfxd Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA

[k-     eqDr O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA

x-      Hkkjr esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA

?k-      foLr`r ,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA

M-      vkfFkZd ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA

p-      Hkkjr esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA 

N-      bl nkSj esa Hkkjrh; laLd`fr vkSj lekt dh rhoz vkykspuk dh xbZ rFkk fczfV'k 'kklu dks Hkkjrh;ksa esa lH;rk ds izlkj dk lk/ku fu:fir fd;k x;kA

t-      Hkkjr ls vfrjsd /ku dks fczVsu LFkkukarfjr fd;k tkuk bl nkSj esa Hkh mifuos'kokn dk izeq[k y{k.k cuk jgkA egaxs iz'kklu vkSj vf/kd djkjksi.k us Hkkjrh; yksxksa ds 'kks"k.k dks vf/kdre djus esa lg;ksx fn;kA

3- r`rh; voLFkk& fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa 1860 rd vk;s ifjorZuksa ds ifj.kke Lo:i Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh r`rh; voLFkk izkjEHk gqbZA bl voLFkk ds izkjEHk gksus ds dqN cqfu;knh dkj.k Fks& vkS|ksfxd dzkafr ds ;wjksi ,oa vesafjdk ds ns'kksa esa izlkj ds dkj.k fczVsu dh vkS|ksfxd Js"Brk lekIr gks xbZ] uohu 'kfDr ds lk/kuksa fctyh rFkk isVªksfy;e ds iz;ksx ls ,d uohu rduhdh Økafr dk mn; gqvk rFkk ifjogu ds varjkZ"Vªh; lk/kuksa esa dzkafr ds dkj.k fo'o cktkj dk vf/kd ,dhdj.k gqvkA bu dkj.kksa vkSj mifuos'kksa ls iwath ds vf/kdkf/kd nksgu ds ifj.kkeLo:i iawthoknh ns'kksa esa cM+h ek=k esa iwath dk lap; gqvkA vc bl iwath ds fuos'k ds fy, iqu% ,d izfrLi/kkZ 'kq: gbZ ftlesa mifuos'kksa dk foRrh; iwathokn ds }kjk 'kks"k.k fd;k x;kA bl foRr iwathokn us iqu% fo'o ds foHkktu vkSj uo&mifuos'khdj.k dh izfØ;k dks tUe fn;k tks Hkkjr esa 1860 ds ckn izkjEHk gqbZA

        bl voLFkk ds nkSjku lalkj esa fczVsu dh fLFkfr dks izfr}Unh iwathoknh ns'kksa }kjk yxkrkj pqukSrh nh xbZ FkhA Hkkjr ij viuk fu;a=.k n`<+ djus ds fy, vc blus l'kDr iz;Ru fd,A mnkj lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ka vc izfrfØ;kRed lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ksa esa cny x;hA ;g fyVu] MQfju] ykalMkmu rFkk dtZu ds ok;ljk; ds dky esa izfrfcfEcr gqvkA izfr}fUn;ksa dks ckgj j[kus ds fy, fczfV'k iwath dks Hkkjr esa vkd`"V djus ds fy, rFkk bls lqj{kk iznku djus ds fy, Hkkjr esa jsyos] Hkkjrh; ljdkj ds _.k] O;kikj o dqN gn rd ckxku] dks;yk [kku] twV dkj[kkuksa] tgktjkuh rFkk cSafdx esa yxkbZ x;h FkhA

        bl nkSj eas iqu% iwathoknh la?k"kZ izkjEHk gqvk ftlesa fczVsu ds lkezkT; dh lqj{kk esa Hkkjr esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk dh A fczVsu us bl uo&mifuos'kokn dh voLFkk esa Hkkjr ij vf/kd rhoz fu;a=.k dh 'kq:vkr dhA vf/kd etcwr] dk;Zdq'ky ,oa O;kid iz'kklu] fujadq'k fdarq fir`or rkuk'kkgh rFkk dV~Vjoknh vkSj izfrfØ;koknh rkdrksa dks izJ; nsus dh uhfr }kjk Hkkjr ij vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkj dks LFkk;h j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA mifuos'kokn dh bl r`rh; voLFkkk dh fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjr esa fczfV'k iwath dh lqj{kk vc fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk igyk y{; FkhA

[k-     ,f'k;k vkSj vQzhdk esa Hkh fczfV'k lkezkT; dh lqj{kk] foLrkj vkSj lqn`<+hdj.k ds fy, Hkkjrh; lsuk dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k vkSj Hkkjr ij vius lkezkT; dks vf/kdkf/kd O;kid cukdj Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd vkRe fuHkZjrk ds iz;kl dks nck;k x;kA

x-      Hkkjrh;ksa esa iui jgh Lo&'kklu vkSj jktuhfrd Lora=rk dh bPNk ds vc iwjh rjg neu }kjk dqpyus dh uhfr viuk;h xbZA

mifuos'kokn ds izHkko&

        Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn us Hkkjr dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuhfrd izR;sd {ks= esa izHkkfor fd;kA Hkkjrh; thou vius O;fDrxr vkSj lkewfgd :i esa mifuos'kokn dh lHkh n'kkvksa esa fons'kh lRrk ds euekus 'kks"k.k dk f'kdkj gqvk vkSj yEcs le; rd vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us gekjh ewyHkwr lajpuk ij fofo/k izHkko MkysA bu izHkkoksa dks vkfFkZd] lekftd ,oa jktuhfrd ifjizs{; esa ns[ks tkus dh vko';drk gS&

1- vkfFkZd izHkko& mifuos'kokn vkfFkZd ykHkksa  ds fy, ykxw dh xbZ ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk gS vr% LokHkkfod :i ls mlds lcls vf/kd izHkko vkfFkZd {ks= ij gh fn[kkbZ iM+rs  gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn us vius izR;sd pj.k esa ;gka adh vFkZO;oLFkk ds izR;sd igyw&d`f"k] m|ksx] oxZ] vkfFkZd n'kk rFkk jk"Vªh; vk; dks izHkkfor fd;kA

d-      mifuos'kokn ds izkjfEHkd nkSj us gh Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd m|ksxksa dks lekIr dj fn;kA Hkkjrh; gLr f'kfYi;ksa dks de ls de dher ij vius fy, dke djus dks ck/; djds rFkk mUgsa Å¡ph dherksa ij dPpk eky [kjhnus ij foo'k djds nksgjs 'kks"k.k }kjk lekIr dj fn;kA vkS|kSfxd dzkafr ds ckn ds nkSj esa Hkkjr dks baXyS.M ds vkS|ksfxd mRiknksa dk cktkj cuk fn;k x;k vkSj ;gka ds yksxksa dks fczfV'k vk;krksa ij fuHkZj gks tkuk iM+kA

[k-     Hkkjrh; d`"kd dks vR;f/kd Hkwfe jktLo ds fu/kkZj.k] tehankjh O;oLFkk rFkk Hkwfe cankscLrksa }kjk vf/kdkf/kd nfjnz cuk;k x;k vkSj og d`"kd ls [ksfrgj etnwj curk pykA

x-      Hkkjr esa d`f"k ds {ks= esa ,d uhou izfdz;k dk tUe gqvk ftls d`f"k dk O;olk;hdj.k dgk x;kA blds varxZr Hkkjrh; d`f"k esa udnh Qlyksa dk izfr'kr c<+k] Hkkjrh; d`f"k dk cktkj vUrjkZ"Vªh; gqvk rFkk Hkkjr essa iwathoknh d`f"k dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA fdarq ;g leLr izfØ;k Hkkjrh; d`"kd ds fy, vfufPNr rFkk Fkksih x;h O;oLFkk dk ifj.kke Fkh ftlus mlds 'kks"k.k esa o`f) gh dhA

?k-      mifuos'kokn us vius izR;sd nkSj esa Hkkjr ds ijEijkxr xzkeh.k vkfFkZd <kaps dks ifjofrZr fd;k ftlls vkRefuHkZj xzkeh.k O;oLFkk lekIr gqbZ rFkk Hkkjr dh cgqla[;d turk
(d`"kd vkSj NksVs dkjhxj) vYila[;d yksxksa (tehankj vkSj egktu) }kjk 'kksf"kr gqbZA

M-      vkSifuosf'kd Hkkjr esa vkfFkZd voLFkk yxkrkj cnrj gksrh xbZ ftldk ifjp; yxkrkj iM+rs mu vdkyksa esa feyrk gS tks fczfV'k 'kklu ds izkjEHk ls Hkkjr dh Lora=rk izkfIr rd yxkrkj fofHkUu {ks=ksa es IkM+rs jgsA bu vdkyksa dk ,d ize[qk dkj.k Fkk& vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu ds varxZr d`"kd dh cngkyh] dqVhj m|ksxksa dk lekiu] iz'kklu }kjk ywV&[klksV rFkk [kk|kUu mRiknu esa yxkrkj dehA

p-      vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu dh uhfr;ksa us Hkkjr esa m|ksxksa dh LFkkiuk ,oa fodkl dks jksds j[kkk vkSj ;gka dh vFkZO;oLFkk dks d`f"k vk/kkfjr xzkeh.k vFkZO;oLFkk cuk, j[kkA

        vkSifuosf'kd vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ds dqN ldkjkRed ifj.kke Hkh gq,&vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us Hkkjr esa jsyos vkSj Mkd&rkj] cSad] chek rFkk vk/kqfud iwathokn ls izHkkfor vkS|ksfxd O;oLFkk dh 'kq:vkr dhA ;|fi bu lc dk y{; lkezkT;oknh O;oLFkk dh mUufr Fkk fdarq budk Hkkjrh; lekt ds vk/kqfudhdj.k esa Hkh ;ksxnku jgkA bu uhfr;ksa us iwjs Hkkjr dks ,d tSlh vkfFkZd leL;k,a&d`f"k laca/kh leL;k,a] xjhch] csjkstxkjh vkfn nh ftuls Hkkjr ds jk"Vªh;  vkfFkZd ,dhdj.k dk ekxZ iz'kLr gqvkA

2- lkekftd izHkko& mifuos'kokn us Hkkjrh; lkekftd <kaps esa Hkh egRoiw.kZ ifjorZuksa dh :ijs[kk j[khA mifuos'kokn }kjk Hkkjr dh vkfFkZd lajpuk esa yk, x, ifjorZuksa us ;gka dh lkekftd lajpuk dks izHkkfor fd;k&

d-      Hkkjrh; xzkeksa ds vkRefuHkZj Lo:i ds fo?kVu ls ogka ds lekftd laca/k Hkh ifjofrZr gq, vkSj vc lkekftd laca/kksa ds u, Lo:i dk tUe gqvkA

[k-     Hkkjrh; xzkeksa esa tehankj] vuqifLFkr HkwLokeh (tks 'kgjksa esa jgrs Fks vkSj vius xqek'rksa ds ek/;e ls xkao ls Hkw&jktLo dh olwyh djrs Fks)] iV~Vsnkj] dk'rdkj ekfyd] [ksfrgj etnwj] NksVs O;kikjh ,oa lwn[kksaj egktu tSls u, oxksZa dk mn; mifuos'kokn dk gh ifj.kke FkkA

x-      'kgjh thou esa foRrh; iwathifr] m|ksxifr] vkS|ksfxd etnwj] vk/kqfud iwathoknh O;kikjh ,oa nqdkunkj] MkWDVj] odhy] i=dkj] f'k{kd tSls is'ksoj oxksZa dk mn; Hkh mifuos'kokn ds dkj.k gqvk tks dkykarj esa Hkkjrh; lekt ds egRoiw.kZ LraHk cusA

?k-      is'ksoj oxZ esa is'kkxr lkekftd psruk dk mn; Hkh mifuos'koknh 'kklu ds ifj.kkeLo:i gh gqvkA bl lkekftd psruk us Lora= Hkkjr esa jktuhfrd ncko lewgksa dk :i ys fy;kA

M-      Hkkjr esa tkrh; laxBuksa dk mn; Hkh vkSifuosf'kd O;oLFkk esa vkfFkZd jktuhfrd ykHkksa ds fy, ncko cukus dh vko';drk dk gh ifj.kke gS ftlus vkt rd Hkkjrh; lekt dks fo[kafMr j[kk gS vkSj jktuhfr dks izHkkfor fd;k gSA

p-      Hkkjrh; lekt esa lkaiznkf;drk ds fo"k dk mn; ,oa fodkl  vkSifuosf'kd vFkZO;oLFkk dk LokHkkfod ifj.kke Fkk ftls vkSifuosf'kd 'kkldksa us QwV Mkydj jkt djus dh uhfr }kjk iqf"ir&iYyfor fd;kA

3-   jktuhfrd izHkko & vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us yacs le; rd Hkkjr esa ekStwn jgdj vius izR;{k ,oa vizR;{k ifj.kkeksa ls Hkkjr dks ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr dk :i Hkh fn;k vkSj bUgha RkRoksa us Hkkjrh; jktuhfr dks og Lo:i Hkh iznku fd;k tks ges vkt fn[kkbZ nsrk gS&

d-      mifuos'koknh 'kkldksa us 'kklu dh lqfo/kk ds fy, Hkkjr dks ,d lw= esa cka/kk rFkk ,d tSlh iz'kklfud O;oLFkk ykxw dh ftlls Hkkjrh;ksa esa Hkh jktuhfrd bdkbZ gksus dh psruk tkx`r gqbZ vkSj Hkkjr dk ,d jk"Vª ds :i esa fuekZ.k laHko gqvkA

[k-     vaxzstksa }kjk ykxw f'k{kk iz.kkyh us Hkkjrh;ksa dks yksdra= ,oa Lokra=~; psruk ls ifjfpr djk;k ftlls Hkkjrh;ksa dks Hkh vius lekt ,oa jkT; dks yksdrkaf=d O;oLFkk esa ykus dh izsj.kk feyhA

x-      vkSifuosf'kd vf/kdkfj;ksa }kjk Hkkjr ds yksxksa ij fd, tkus okys vR;kpkjksa] viekutud mifuos'kokn ,d fLFkj O;oLFkk ugha gS] blds fodkl dh fofHkUu voLFkk,a gSa tks iwathoknh ns'k dh vko';drk ds vuqdwy ifjofrZr gksrh gSA mifuos'kokn dk fLFkj lR; flQZ ,d gS & vkSj og gS iwathoknh lRrk dh LokFkZiwfrZ ds fy, mifuos'k dk 'kks"k.kA ;g 'kks"k.k dh izfØ;k izR;sd voLFkk esa jgrh gSA blh 'kks"k.k dks LFkk;h ,oa vf/kdre djus ds fy, lkezkT;oknh ns'k vyx&vyx nkSj esa vyx&vyx lk/kuksa dk iz;ksx djrk gS tks mifuos'kokn dh voLFkkvksa dk fuekZ.k djrs gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh fofHkUu voLFkkvksa dk n'kZu fczfV'k 'kklu ds nkSj dh xgjh tkap&iM+rky ls gksrk gS&

1-      izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)

2-      f}rh; voLFkk (1813&1860)

3-      r`rh; voLFkk (1860&1947)

1- izFke voLFkk ( 1757&1813)& 1757 esa Iyklh dh fot; ds lkFk Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh izFke voLFkk dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA Iyklh ds ;q) ds ifj.kkeLo:i ,d O;kikfjd daiuh Hkkjr esa ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr cu xbZA ;g fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa of.kdokn dk ;qx FkkA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr ds lkFk O;kikj ij ,dkf/kdkj izkIr djuk rFkk bl ,dkf/kdkj }kjk vf/kdre ykHk izkIr djuk fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk y{; FkkA daiuh }kjk Iyklh dk ;q) thrus ls Hkkjr esa mls tks jktuhfrd 'kfDr izkIr gqb mldk iz;ksx daiuh us vius O;kikfjd ykHk dks vf/kdkf/kd djus ds fy, fd;kA Hkkjr dks mlds mRiknksa ds cnys lksus pkanh tSlh cgqewY; /kkrq,a nsus ds cnys daiuh us ljdkjh jktLo dh vf/kdre izkfIr }kjk Hkkjr ls izkIr /ku dks gh  Hkkjr esa yxkus dk fu'p; fd;kA nwljh vksj Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks jktuhfrd lRrk ds iz;ksx }kjk vius o'k esa djds mUgsa de ls de ewY;ksa ij dEiuh ds fy, dke djus ij ck/; fd;kA bl  rjg ykxr esa deh vkSj Hkkjrh; /ku ds vf/kdkf/kd 'kks"k.k }kjk daiuh us bl nkSj esa vius vkSifuosf'kd y{;ksa dks iwjk fd;kA bl nkSj esa Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dh dqN eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjrh; mRiknuksa ds fu;kZr esa o`f) gqbZ D;ksafd ;s gh fons'kksa esa daiuh dh vk; ds lk/ku FksA

[k-     fu;kZr esa o`f) dk ykHk Hkkjrh; dkjhxjksa dks ugha] oju daiuh dks feyk D;ksafd daiuh us mUgsa vius fgr esaa dk;Z djus ds fy, ck/; fd;k vkSj mudk 'kks"k.k fd;kA

x-      daiuh dh jktuhfrd fot; ds dkj.k daiuh dks Hkkjrh; jktLo olwyh dk vf/kdkj feyk] bl jktLo dks vf/kdre ek=k esa olwy daiuh us bls gh Hkkjrh; O;kikj esa fofu;ksftr fd;k] bl izfØ;k ls daiuh dks vf/kdre ykHk izkIr gqvkA

?k-      bl voLFkk esa daiuh }kjk Hkkjr esa vf/kdre osru ij fczfV'k vf/kdkfj;ksa dh fu;qfDr dh xbZ] ftuds osru vkSj isa'ku ds :i esa Hkh Hkkjrh; lalk/kuksa dk 'kks"k.k gqvkA

M-      bl iwjs nkSj esa Hkkjrh; mifuos'k esa iz'kklu] U;k; O;oLFkk] O;kikj izcU/ku ,oa vkfFkZd laxBu vkfn ds {ks= esa daiuh }kjk dksbZ fo'ks"k ifjorZu ugha fd, x,A mUgha izpfyr O;oLFkkvksa esa 'kks"k.k dks ykxw djus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA

p-      bl dky esa Hkkjr ls cM+h ek=k esa /ku dk fu"dklu gqvk ftlus baXySaM dh vkS|ksfxd Økafr ds fy, iwath dh O;oLFkk esa egRoiw.kZ ;ksx fn;kA

2- f}rh; voLFkk& 1813 rd baXySaM esa vkS|ksfxd Økafr lEiUu gks pqdh Fkh vkSj ogka ,d ,sls m|ksxifr oxZ dk mn; gqvk Fkk tks jktuhfr dks izHkkfor djus dh fLFkfr esa FkkA bl uoksfnr iwathifr oxZ us bZLV bafM;ka daiuh ds O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj ij vkifRr trk;h vkSj jktuhfrd 'kfDr ds iz;ksx }kjk mls lhfer djus esa lQyrk Hkh ik;hA 1773 ls 1813 rd ds fofHkUu pkVZj ,DV ds }kjk daiuh dk O;kikfjd ,dkf/kdkj Øe'k% [kRe gksrk x;k vkSj 1813 ds ckn Hkkjr esa eqDr O;kikj dk dky izkjEHk gqvkA bl nkSj esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds Hkkjr esa fuckZ/k izos'k dks eq[; ;a= cuk;k x;k vkSj fczVsu ds iwathifr;ksa dh lgk;rk  ds fy, Hkkjr esa ekStwnk fczfV'k ljdkj dk iz;ksx fd;k x;kA eqDr O;kikj ds bl nkSj esa fczVsu }kjk Hkkjr ls nks izeq[k iwathoknh y{;ksa dh iwfrZ dk y{; j[kk x;k&fczVsu ds uoksfnr m|ksxksa dks Hkkjr ls dPpk eky miyC/k djkuk rFkk Hkkjr dks bu m|ksxksa ds mRikfnr eky dk cktkj cukukA bu y{;ksa dh izkfIr ds fy, ,slh uhfr;ksa dk iz.k;u fd;k x;k ftlls Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd O;oLFkk esa cnyko gks vkSj Hkkjrh; yksxksa esa fczfV'k mRiknksa ds izfr :fp tkxsA bl nkSj esa vkSifuosf'kd fgrksa dks iw.kZ djus okyh O;oLFkk dh eq[; fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      vkS|ksfxd Økafr us Hkkjr vkSj fczVsu ds vkfFkZd laca/kksa dks ifjofrZr dj fn;k Fkk] vc fczVsu dks O;kikj }kjk ugha cfYd m|ksx&tfur ykHk dh vko';drk FkhA vr% Hkkjr esa fo|eku O;oLFkk dks iw.kZ :i ls cnyus dh vko';drk eglwl dh xbZA

[k-     eqDr O;kikj uhfr dks tkjh j[kus vkSj vf/kdre ykHk dks izkIr djus ds fy, fczVsu ls Hkkjr vkus okyh lHkh oLrqvksa ij vk;kr dj ;k rks iw.kZr% lekIr dj fn, x, ;k vR;Ur de j[ks x,A ijUrq ;g eqDr O;kikj ,djs[kh; Fkk vFkkZr fczVsu ls Hkkjr dks fu;kZr gksusokyh oLrq,a rks 'kqYd eqDr Fkh ysfdu Hkkjr ls fczVsu dk fu;kZr gksus okyh oLrqvksa ij mPp njksa okys 'kqYd yxk;s tkrs FksA

x-      Hkkjr esa Hkwfe cankscLr] iz'kklu vkSj fofHkUu vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ykxw dj Hkkjr dks fczfV'k eqDr O;kikj ds ;ksX; cuk;k x;k&LFkk;h ugjksa ds fodkl rFkk jsyos dh O;oLFkk }kjk dPpsa eky dks canjxkgksa rd igqapkus vkSj rS;kj eky dks vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd ykus dh O;oLFkk dh xbZA

?k-      foLr`r ,oa O;kid iz'kklu }kjk Hkkjr ds nwjxkeh rFkk vkUrfjd {ks=ksa rd fczfV'k O;oLFkk dh igqaap cuk;h xbZ vkSj Hkkjrh; dkuwu O;oLFkk esa ifjorZu djds fczfV'k iwathifr;ksa dks lqj{kk dh xkjaVh nh xbZA

M-      vkfFkZd ysu nsu dks vklku cukus ds fy, vk/kqfud Mkd rFkk VsyhxzkQ O;oLFkk fodflr dh xbZA

p-      Hkkjr esa foLr`r iz'kklfud e'khujh dks dq'ky <ax ls pykus ds fy, vk/kqfud f'k{kk dh 'kq:vkr dh xbZ rFkk Hkkjr ds lekt vkSj laLd`fr dks fczVsu ds vuqdwy cukus esa Hkh blls lgk;rk dh vk'kk dh xbZA 

N-      bl nkSj esa Hkkjrh; laLd`fr vkSj lekt dh rhoz vkykspuk dh xbZ rFkk fczfV'k 'kklu dks Hkkjrh;ksa esa lH;rk ds izlkj dk lk/ku fu:fir fd;k x;kA

t-      Hkkjr ls vfrjsd /ku dks fczVsu LFkkukarfjr fd;k tkuk bl nkSj esa Hkh mifuos'kokn dk izeq[k y{k.k cuk jgkA egaxs iz'kklu vkSj vf/kd djkjksi.k us Hkkjrh; yksxksa ds 'kks"k.k dks vf/kdre djus esa lg;ksx fn;kA

3- r`rh; voLFkk& fo'o vFkZO;oLFkk esa 1860 rd vk;s ifjorZuksa ds ifj.kke Lo:i Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn dh r`rh; voLFkk izkjEHk gqbZA bl voLFkk ds izkjEHk gksus ds dqN cqfu;knh dkj.k Fks& vkS|ksfxd dzkafr ds ;wjksi ,oa vesafjdk ds ns'kksa esa izlkj ds dkj.k fczVsu dh vkS|ksfxd Js"Brk lekIr gks xbZ] uohu 'kfDr ds lk/kuksa fctyh rFkk isVªksfy;e ds iz;ksx ls ,d uohu rduhdh Økafr dk mn; gqvk rFkk ifjogu ds varjkZ"Vªh; lk/kuksa esa dzkafr ds dkj.k fo'o cktkj dk vf/kd ,dhdj.k gqvkA bu dkj.kksa vkSj mifuos'kksa ls iwath ds vf/kdkf/kd nksgu ds ifj.kkeLo:i iawthoknh ns'kksa esa cM+h ek=k esa iwath dk lap; gqvkA vc bl iwath ds fuos'k ds fy, iqu% ,d izfrLi/kkZ 'kq: gbZ ftlesa mifuos'kksa dk foRrh; iwathokn ds }kjk 'kks"k.k fd;k x;kA bl foRr iwathokn us iqu% fo'o ds foHkktu vkSj uo&mifuos'khdj.k dh izfØ;k dks tUe fn;k tks Hkkjr esa 1860 ds ckn izkjEHk gqbZA

        bl voLFkk ds nkSjku lalkj esa fczVsu dh fLFkfr dks izfr}Unh iwathoknh ns'kksa }kjk yxkrkj pqukSrh nh xbZ FkhA Hkkjr ij viuk fu;a=.k n`<+ djus ds fy, vc blus l'kDr iz;Ru fd,A mnkj lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ka vc izfrfØ;kRed lkezkT;oknh uhfr;ksa esa cny x;hA ;g fyVu] MQfju] ykalMkmu rFkk dtZu ds ok;ljk; ds dky esa izfrfcfEcr gqvkA izfr}fUn;ksa dks ckgj j[kus ds fy, fczfV'k iwath dks Hkkjr esa vkd`"V djus ds fy, rFkk bls lqj{kk iznku djus ds fy, Hkkjr esa jsyos] Hkkjrh; ljdkj ds _.k] O;kikj o dqN gn rd ckxku] dks;yk [kku] twV dkj[kkuksa] tgktjkuh rFkk cSafdx esa yxkbZ x;h FkhA

        bl nkSj eas iqu% iwathoknh la?k"kZ izkjEHk gqvk ftlesa fczVsu ds lkezkT; dh lqj{kk esa Hkkjr esa egRoiw.kZ Hkwfedk vnk dh A fczVsu us bl uo&mifuos'kokn dh voLFkk esa Hkkjr ij vf/kd rhoz fu;a=.k dh 'kq:vkr dhA vf/kd etcwr] dk;Zdq'ky ,oa O;kid iz'kklu] fujadq'k fdarq fir`or rkuk'kkgh rFkk dV~Vjoknh vkSj izfrfØ;koknh rkdrksa dks izJ; nsus dh uhfr }kjk Hkkjr ij vius jktuhfrd vf/kdkj dks LFkk;h j[kus dk iz;kl fd;k x;kA mifuos'kokn dh bl r`rh; voLFkkk dh fo'ks"krk,a Fkh&

d-      Hkkjr esa fczfV'k iwath dh lqj{kk vc fczfV'k mifuos'kokn dk igyk y{; FkhA

[k-     ,f'k;k vkSj vQzhdk esa Hkh fczfV'k lkezkT; dh lqj{kk] foLrkj vkSj lqn`<+hdj.k ds fy, Hkkjrh; lsuk dk iz;ksx fd;k x;k vkSj Hkkjr ij vius lkezkT; dks vf/kdkf/kd O;kid cukdj Hkkjr ds vkfFkZd vkRe fuHkZjrk ds iz;kl dks nck;k x;kA

x-      Hkkjrh;ksa esa iui jgh Lo&'kklu vkSj jktuhfrd Lora=rk dh bPNk ds vc iwjh rjg neu }kjk dqpyus dh uhfr viuk;h xbZA

mifuos'kokn ds izHkko&

        Hkkjr esa fczfV'k mifuos'kokn us Hkkjr dks lkekftd] vkfFkZd vkSj jktuhfrd izR;sd {ks= esa izHkkfor fd;kA Hkkjrh; thou vius O;fDrxr vkSj lkewfgd :i esa mifuos'kokn dh lHkh n'kkvksa esa fons'kh lRrk ds euekus 'kks"k.k dk f'kdkj gqvk vkSj yEcs le; rd vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us gekjh ewyHkwr lajpuk ij fofo/k izHkko MkysA bu izHkkoksa dks vkfFkZd] lekftd ,oa jktuhfrd ifjizs{; esa ns[ks tkus dh vko';drk gS&

1- vkfFkZd izHkko& mifuos'kokn vkfFkZd ykHkksa  ds fy, ykxw dh xbZ ,d jktuhfrd O;oLFkk gS vr% LokHkkfod :i ls mlds lcls vf/kd izHkko vkfFkZd {ks= ij gh fn[kkbZ iM+rs  gSaA Hkkjr esa mifuos'kokn us vius izR;sd pj.k esa ;gka adh vFkZO;oLFkk ds izR;sd igyw&d`f"k] m|ksx] oxZ] vkfFkZd n'kk rFkk jk"Vªh; vk; dks izHkkfor fd;kA

d-      mifuos'kokn ds izkjfEHkd nkSj us gh Hkkjrh; ikjEifjd m|ksxksa dks lekIr dj fn;kA Hkkjrh; gLr f'kfYi;ksa dks de ls de dher ij vius fy, dke djus dks ck/; djds rFkk mUgsa Å¡ph dherksa ij dPpk eky [kjhnus ij foo'k djds nksgjs 'kks"k.k }kjk lekIr dj fn;kA vkS|kSfxd dzkafr ds ckn ds nkSj esa Hkkjr dks baXyS.M ds vkS|ksfxd mRiknksa dk cktkj cuk fn;k x;k vkSj ;gka ds yksxksa dks fczfV'k vk;krksa ij fuHkZj gks tkuk iM+kA

[k-     Hkkjrh; d`"kd dks vR;f/kd Hkwfe jktLo ds fu/kkZj.k] tehankjh O;oLFkk rFkk Hkwfe cankscLrksa }kjk vf/kdkf/kd nfjnz cuk;k x;k vkSj og d`"kd ls [ksfrgj etnwj curk pykA

x-      Hkkjr esa d`f"k ds {ks= esa ,d uhou izfdz;k dk tUe gqvk ftls d`f"k dk O;olk;hdj.k dgk x;kA blds varxZr Hkkjrh; d`f"k esa udnh Qlyksa dk izfr'kr c<+k] Hkkjrh; d`f"k dk cktkj vUrjkZ"Vªh; gqvk rFkk Hkkjr essa iwathoknh d`f"k dh 'kq:vkr gqbZA fdarq ;g leLr izfØ;k Hkkjrh; d`"kd ds fy, vfufPNr rFkk Fkksih x;h O;oLFkk dk ifj.kke Fkh ftlus mlds 'kks"k.k esa o`f) gh dhA

?k-      mifuos'kokn us vius izR;sd nkSj esa Hkkjr ds ijEijkxr xzkeh.k vkfFkZd <kaps dks ifjofrZr fd;k ftlls vkRefuHkZj xzkeh.k O;oLFkk lekIr gqbZ rFkk Hkkjr dh cgqla[;d turk
(d`"kd vkSj NksVs dkjhxj) vYila[;d yksxksa (tehankj vkSj egktu) }kjk 'kksf"kr gqbZA

M-      vkSifuosf'kd Hkkjr esa vkfFkZd voLFkk yxkrkj cnrj gksrh xbZ ftldk ifjp; yxkrkj iM+rs mu vdkyksa esa feyrk gS tks fczfV'k 'kklu ds izkjEHk ls Hkkjr dh Lora=rk izkfIr rd yxkrkj fofHkUu {ks=ksa es IkM+rs jgsA bu vdkyksa dk ,d ize[qk dkj.k Fkk& vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu ds varxZr d`"kd dh cngkyh] dqVhj m|ksxksa dk lekiu] iz'kklu }kjk ywV&[klksV rFkk [kk|kUu mRiknu esa yxkrkj dehA

p-      vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu dh uhfr;ksa us Hkkjr esa m|ksxksa dh LFkkiuk ,oa fodkl dks jksds j[kkk vkSj ;gka dh vFkZO;oLFkk dks d`f"k vk/kkfjr xzkeh.k vFkZO;oLFkk cuk, j[kkA

        vkSifuosf'kd vkfFkZd uhfr;ksa ds dqN ldkjkRed ifj.kke Hkh gq,&vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us Hkkjr esa jsyos vkSj Mkd&rkj] cSad] chek rFkk vk/kqfud iwathokn ls izHkkfor vkS|ksfxd O;oLFkk dh 'kq:vkr dhA ;|fi bu lc dk y{; lkezkT;oknh O;oLFkk dh mUufr Fkk fdarq budk Hkkjrh; lekt ds vk/kqfudhdj.k esa Hkh ;ksxnku jgkA bu uhfr;ksa us iwjs Hkkjr dks ,d tSlh vkfFkZd leL;k,a&d`f"k laca/kh leL;k,a] xjhch] csjkstxkjh vkfn nh ftuls Hkkjr ds jk"Vªh;  vkfFkZd ,dhdj.k dk ekxZ iz'kLr gqvkA

2- lkekftd izHkko& mifuos'kokn us Hkkjrh; lkekftd <kaps esa Hkh egRoiw.kZ ifjorZuksa dh :ijs[kk j[khA mifuos'kokn }kjk Hkkjr dh vkfFkZd lajpuk esa yk, x, ifjorZuksa us ;gka dh lkekftd lajpuk dks izHkkfor fd;k&

d-      Hkkjrh; xzkeksa ds vkRefuHkZj Lo:i ds fo?kVu ls ogka ds lekftd laca/k Hkh ifjofrZr gq, vkSj vc lkekftd laca/kksa ds u, Lo:i dk tUe gqvkA

[k-     Hkkjrh; xzkeksa esa tehankj] vuqifLFkr HkwLokeh (tks 'kgjksa esa jgrs Fks vkSj vius xqek'rksa ds ek/;e ls xkao ls Hkw&jktLo dh olwyh djrs Fks)] iV~Vsnkj] dk'rdkj ekfyd] [ksfrgj etnwj] NksVs O;kikjh ,oa lwn[kksaj egktu tSls u, oxksZa dk mn; mifuos'kokn dk gh ifj.kke FkkA

x-      'kgjh thou esa foRrh; iwathifr] m|ksxifr] vkS|ksfxd etnwj] vk/kqfud iwathoknh O;kikjh ,oa nqdkunkj] MkWDVj] odhy] i=dkj] f'k{kd tSls is'ksoj oxksZa dk mn; Hkh mifuos'kokn ds dkj.k gqvk tks dkykarj esa Hkkjrh; lekt ds egRoiw.kZ LraHk cusA

?k-      is'ksoj oxZ esa is'kkxr lkekftd psruk dk mn; Hkh mifuos'koknh 'kklu ds ifj.kkeLo:i gh gqvkA bl lkekftd psruk us Lora= Hkkjr esa jktuhfrd ncko lewgksa dk :i ys fy;kA

M-      Hkkjr esa tkrh; laxBuksa dk mn; Hkh vkSifuosf'kd O;oLFkk esa vkfFkZd jktuhfrd ykHkksa ds fy, ncko cukus dh vko';drk dk gh ifj.kke gS ftlus vkt rd Hkkjrh; lekt dks fo[kafMr j[kk gS vkSj jktuhfr dks izHkkfor fd;k gSA

p-      Hkkjrh; lekt esa lkaiznkf;drk ds fo"k dk mn; ,oa fodkl  vkSifuosf'kd vFkZO;oLFkk dk LokHkkfod ifj.kke Fkk ftls vkSifuosf'kd 'kkldksa us QwV Mkydj jkt djus dh uhfr }kjk iqf"ir&iYyfor fd;kA

3-   jktuhfrd izHkko & vkSifuosf'kd 'kklu us yacs le; rd Hkkjr esa ekStwn jgdj vius izR;{k ,oa vizR;{k ifj.kkeksa ls Hkkjr dks ,d jktuhfrd 'kfDr dk :i Hkh fn;k vkSj bUgha RkRoksa us Hkkjrh; jktuhfr dks og Lo:i Hkh iznku fd;k tks ges vkt fn[kkbZ nsrk gS&

d-      mifuos'koknh 'kkldksa us 'kklu dh lqfo/kk ds fy, Hkkjr dks ,d lw= esa cka/kk rFkk ,d tSlh iz'kklfud O;oLFkk ykxw dh ftlls Hkkjrh;ksa esa Hkh jktuhfrd bdkbZ gksus dh psruk tkx`r gqbZ vkSj Hkkjr dk ,d jk"Vª ds :i esa fuekZ.k laHko gqvkA

[k-     vaxzstksa }kjk ykxw f'k{kk iz.kkyh us Hkkjrh;ksa dks yksdra= ,oa Lokra=~; psruk ls ifjfpr djk;k ftlls Hkkjrh;ksa dks Hkh vius lekt ,oa jkT; dks yksdrkaf=d O;oLFkk esa ykus dh izsj.kk feyhA

x-      vkSifuosf'kd vf/kdkfj;ksa }kjk Hkkjr ds yksxksa ij fd, tkus okys vR;kpkjksa] viekutud O;ogkjksa  us Hkkjrh;ksa esa jktuhfrd laxBu dh bPNk dks txk;k rFkk dkaxzsl ds usr`Ro esa Hkkjr ,d jktuhfrd laxBu cukA

?k-          Hkkjr ds yksdra= rFkk orZeku jktuhfrd&iz'kklfud Lo:i ij fczfV'k O;oLFkk dk vR;f/kd izHkko mifuos'kokn dh gh nsu gSSA