MORDERN TERM RELATED TO IR
Accountability
The notion that individuals, including public officials,
should be held responsible for their actions. Political accountability means
the responsibility or obligation of government officials to act in the best
interests of society or face consequences. Legal accountability concerns the
mechanisms by which public officials can be held liable for actions that go
against established rules and principles. In cases of crimes against humanity,
accountability means that individuals should be held accountable by the state
they occurred in or by the international community.
Active listening
A way of listening that focuses on both the content of
statements or responses in a dialogue and the underlying emotions. It means
asking open-ended questions, seeking clarification, asking for specificity, and
confirming your understanding of what the other party has said.
Adjudication
In international relations, adjudication involves the
referral of a dispute to an impartial third-party tribunal—normally either an
international court or an arbitration tribunal—for a binding decision. However,
the state or states concerned must give their consent to participate either
through special agreement or existing treaty. Referral to an international
court for judicial settlement involves a permanent judicial body, which means
that the method for selecting judges and procedures of the court are already
established. Probably the best known such court is the International Court of
Justice. For more on referral to an arbitration tribunal, see Arbitration.
Alternative dispute resolution (ADR)
In general, ADR refers to an approach to the resolution of
conflicts that does not involve litigation and seeks an outcome at least
minimally satisfactory to all parties concerned. ADR tends to involve greater
direct negotiation on the part of disputants than does litigation, takes much
less time and money, and seeks consensus. Many analysts no longer include the
word “alternative.” Others use the term “appropriate dispute resolution.”
Arbitration
A form of international adjudication that involves the
referral of a dispute or disputes to an ad hoc tribunal—rather than to a
permanently established court—for binding decision. By agreement, the parties
define the issues to be arbitrated, the method for selecting arbitrators, and
the procedures for the tribunal. Because the parties have committed in advance
(often by treaty) to accept the results, most states comply with arbitral
awards. Perhaps the best-know recent example of conflict-related arbitration
concerned control of the Brcko area, in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as part of the
Dayton Peace Agreement. Arbitration differs from mediation, in which a third
party helps the disputants develop a solution on their own. See also
Adjudication and Mediation.
Arms control
A process of cooperation among states aimed at reducing the
likelihood or scope of military action by adopting reciprocal measures to
assure against surprise attack, to limit deployments, or to reduce armaments or
the size and structure of armed forces.
Asymmetry
In describing relationships, asymmetry refers to a situation
where one person or party has more power or leverage than another. That power
could be political, economic, or military, for example, but it also could
result from greater experience or knowledge. See also Leverage.
Autonomy
Literally meaning self-government, autonomy was
traditionally considered synonymous with self-determination and sometimes with
sovereignty. Today it more frequently refers to an arrangement whereby a region
of a country is granted extensive self-governance or de facto self-rule. In
many cases, the region has demanded independence but agreed to autonomy in
certain sectors such as police or education. Regions with autonomous
arrangements include Aceh, Indonesia; Basque Country, Spain; Jammu and Kashmir,
India; Muslim Mindanao, Philippines; Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina;
and Zanzibar, Tanzania.
Back channel negotiation
Communications carried out in secret, usually as part of a
larger negotiation, so as to avoid public disclosure of especially sensitive
matters.
BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Settlement)
The measure against which parties should judge the proposed
terms of any mediated or negotiated agreement.
Capacity
The ability of people, institutions, and societies to
perform functions, solve problems, and set and achieve objectives. The term was
originally applied to institutions—hence the related term institution
building—but more recently it has been applied to a wide range of stakeholders,
including individuals. At the individual level, capacity refers to the
knowledge and skills that people have acquired by study or experience. At the
organizational level, capacity refers to management structures, processes,
systems, and practices as well as an institution’s relationships with other
organizations and sectors including public, private, and community
organizations. Absorptive capacity refers to the amount of new information or
aid that a country or institution can make effective use of.
Capacity building
Enabling people, organizations, and societies to develop,
strengthen, and expand their abilities to meet their goals or fulfill their
mandates. Capacity is strengthened through the transfer of knowledge and skills
that enhance individual and collective abilities to deliver services and carry
out programs that address challenges in a sustainable way. It is a long-term
and continuous process that focuses on developing human resources,
organizational strength, and legal structures, and it involves all stakeholders
including civil society. Related terms include capacity development and
capacity strengthening. The latter term emphasizes the need to build upon existing
capacity as much as possible.
Cease-fire
A suspension of armed conflict agreed to by both sides. It
may be aimed at freezing the conflict in place, in which case it is often
called a cessation of hostilities agreement. Or it may be a formal cease-fire
with more elaborate terms and provisions including external monitoring, often
undertaken as part of a larger negotiated settlement. A cease-fire is sometimes
referred to as a truce. A cease-fire marking the permanent end of war is
referred to as an armistice. Moving beyond an armistice, parties can enter into
a disengagement or separation of forces agreement.
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Chapters 6 and 7
Sections of the United Nations Charter that deal most
directly with dispute resolution. Chapter 6, “Pacific Settlement of Disputes,”
stipulates that parties to a dispute should use peaceful methods of resolving
disputes, such as negotiation and mediation. It authorizes the Security Council
to issue recommendations, but they are generally considered advisory and not
binding. Chapter 7, “Action with Respect to Threats to the Peace, Breaches of
the Peace, and Acts of Aggression,” authorizes more forceful methods such as
economic coercion and severance of diplomatic relations. Should those measures
prove inadequate, the Security Council may then “take such action by air, sea,
or land forces as may be necessary to maintain or restore international peace
and security.” The informal term Chapter 6 and a Half refers to traditional UN
peacekeeping operations that fall between the two. See also Peace enforcement,
Peacekeeping, and Peacemaking.
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Child soldier
An individual, typically between the ages of 15 and 18, in
the armed forces of the state or of an armed group, whether or not the child is
armed or is used in combat. Often conscripted by coercion or manipulation.
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Citizen diplomacy
Unofficial contacts between people of different countries,
as differentiated from official contacts between governmental representatives.
Citizen diplomacy includes exchanges of people (such as student exchanges);
international religious, scientific, and cultural activities; and unofficial
dialogues, discussions, or negotiations between citizens of opposing countries,
which is usually referred to as track 2 diplomacy. In the latter case, citizens
in the United States may seek authorization from the federal government, to
comply with the Logan Act, which prohibits unauthorized U.S. citizens from
interfering in relations between the United States and foreign governments.
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Civil society
A collective term for a wide array of nongovernmental and
nonprofit groups that help their society at large function while working to
advance their own or others’ well-being. It can include civic, educational,
trade, labor, charitable, media, religious, recreational, cultural, and
advocacy groups, as well as informal associations and social movements. In
theory, its institutional forms are distinct from those of the state, family,
and market, though in practice, the boundaries are often blurred. A strong civil
society, or “public space,” can protect individuals and groups against
intrusive government and positively influence government behavior. Most
definitions do not include commercial enterprises but do include business
associations. Some definitions do not consider the media, most of which is for
profit, to be part of civil society but rather a tool that can promote civil
society.
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Civil war
A large-scale armed conflict within a country fought either
for control of all or part of the state, for a greater share of political or
economic power, or for the right to secede. Analysts differ on how to define
“large-scale,” but several sources say a conflict must cause at least 1000
war-related deaths a year to be labeled a civil war.
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Civil-military cooperation
A broad term that covers a variety of collaborative
relationships between civilian and military actors in a conflict environment.
Civilian actors may include government officials, staff from international
organizations, and representatives of nongovernmental organizations. Civ-mil
cooperation ranges from occasional informational meetings to comprehensive
programs where civilian and military partners share planning and
implementation. Cooperation can be controversial, as the military may see civilians
as unduly complicating their mission, and civilians—especially in the
humanitarian field—may think that any association with the military will
compromise their impartiality and threaten their personal safety. However, most
experts see civ-mil cooperation as necessary to provide the security,
knowledge, and skills needed to help transform a conflict into an enduring
peace.
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Coercive diplomacy
Use of threats or limited application of force to persuade
an opponent to call off or undo an action—for example, to halt an invasion or
give up territory that has been occupied. It differs from deterrence, which
employs threats to dissuade an opponent from undertaking an action that has not
yet been initiated. It can be coupled with positive inducements or “carrots.”
It is sometimes referred to ascompellance or more colloquially as mediation
with muscle.
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Communication styles
Communication occurs in a range of styles in all cultures
but can be broadly defined as low context (individualistic) or high context
(relationship-oriented). In low-context communication, meaning is explicitly
expressed and indirectness is considered evasive and potentially dishonest. By
contrast, a listener must figure out the implicit meaning at play within high
context communication, being sure to observe the nonverbal subtleties that
enhance speech. Directness and confrontation are considered offensive and rude.
It is often challenging for low-context professionals from countries like the
United States to communicate effectively with officials from countries like
Japan, Egypt, or India who have more high-context styles of interaction.
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Conciliation
In international relations, the term conciliation is often
used as a synonym formediation. Some authors argue that there are substantive
differences concerning impartiality and level of involvement, for example, but
analysts tend to disagree on these issues. Mediation seems to be the more
common term.
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Confidence-building measure (CBM)
Agreement to exchange information about and allow monitoring
of political and, more frequently, military activities. Some measures establish
rules regarding the movement of military forces. CBMs typically rely on tools
for maintaining direct and quick communication and monitoring among governments
and military forces. Such measures include hotlines, regularly scheduled
exchange of information about military missions, and pre-notification about
troop exercises or missile tests. Some analysts use the broader term
confidence- and security-building measure (CSBM).
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Conflict
An inevitable aspect of human interaction, conflict is
present when two or more individuals or groups pursue mutually incompatible
goals. Conflicts can be waged violently, as in a war, or nonviolently, as in an
election or an adversarial legal process. When channeled constructively into
processes of resolution, conflict can be beneficial. See also Violence and War.
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Conflict analysis
The systematic study of conflict in general and of
individual or group conflicts in particular. Conflict analysis provides a
structured inquiry into the causes and potential trajectory of a conflict so
that processes of resolution can be better understood. For specific conflicts,
the terms conflict assessment or conflict mapping are sometimes used to
describe the process of identifying the stakeholders, their interests and
positions, and the possibility for conflict
management.
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Conflict curve
The curve of conflict is a conceptual tool that helps
illustrate how conflicts tend to evolve over time. The curve helps in
visualizing how different phases of conflict relate to one another, as well as
to identify kinds of third-party intervention. Practitioners can use this
knowledge in the determination of effective strategies for intervention, along
with the timing of those strategies.
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Conflict entrepreneur
The curve of conflict is a conceptual tool that helps
illustrate how conflicts tend to evolve over time. The curve helps in
visualizing how different phases of conflict relate to one another, as well as
to identify kinds of third-party intervention. Practitioners can use this
knowledge in the determination of effective strategies for intervention, along
with the timing of those strategies.
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Conflict management
A general term that describes efforts to prevent, limit,
contain, or resolve conflicts, especially violent ones, while building up the
capacities of all parties involved to undertake peacebuilding. It is based on
the concept that conflicts are a normal part of human interaction and are
rarely completely resolved or eliminated, but they can be managed by such
measures as negotiation, mediation, conciliation, and arbitration. Conflict
management also supports the longer-term development of societal systems and
institutions that enhance good governance, rule of law, security, economic
sustainability, and social well-being, which helps prevent future conflicts. A
closely related term is peacemaking, although peacemaking tends to focus on
halting ongoing conflicts and reaching partial agreements or broader negotiated
settlements.
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Conflict prevention
This term is used most often to refer to measures taken to
keep low-level or long-festering disputes from escalating into violence, but it
can also apply to efforts to limit the spread of violence if it does occur, or
to avoid the reoccurrence of violence. It may include early warning systems,
confidence building measures (hotlines, notification of troop movements),
preventive deployment, and sanctions. Sometimes referred to as preventive
diplomacy.
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Conflict resolution
Efforts to address the underlying causes of a conflict by
finding common interests and overarching goals. It includes fostering positive
attitudes and generating trust through reconciliation initiatives, and building
or strengthening the institutions and processes through which the parties
interact peacefully.
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Conflict transformation
A recently developed concept that emphasizes addressing the
structural roots of conflict by changing existing patterns of behavior and
creating a culture of nonviolent approaches. It proposes an integrated approach
to peacebuilding that aims to bring about long-term changes in personal,
relational, structural, and cultural dimensions. Recognizing that societies in
conflict have existing systems that still function, conflict transformation
focuses on building up local institutions as well as reducing drivers of
conflict.
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Constabulary force
A specialized unit trained and equipped to operate in peace
operations, providing police-type functions like crowd control in high-threat
environments where traditional police tactics would be ineffective but the use
of military forces would be too lethal. The unit is equipped in military
fashion but operates as police. In some countries, constabulary units are
permanent forces that deal with such high-violence situations as fighting the
mafia or terrorism.
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Constitution making
The drafting of a new constitution, especially when seen as
a key element of democratization and state building. This process is crucial to
outlining the vision of a new society, defining the fundamental principles by
which a state will be organized, and distributing or redistributing political
power. Moreover, the constitution making process itself can be a vehicle for
national dialogue and the consolidation of peace. The term constitution
building is sometimes used to encompass the entire process of making and
implementing a new constitution; it may include peace agreements, new laws and
institutions, and civic education.
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Constructive ambiguity
If two parties to a negotiation cannot agree on an issue,
they may be able to paper over their disagreement by using ambiguous language.
The negotiation can then proceed, in the hope that the issue will be resolved
at a later time or cease to be a concern.
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Contact group
Ad hoc grouping of influential countries that have a
significant interest in policy developments in a particular country or region,
such as the one on the Balkans and the one on piracy off the coast of Somalia.
The term is usually associated with some form of peace process or negotiation
in which contact group members play a supportive role.
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Convention
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Corporate social responsibility
The notion that a business should take responsibility for
the impact of its activities on its employees, customers, communities, and the
environment. Perhaps the best-known international example concerns the violent
disputes over control of oil production in Nigeria. The foreign companies have
been accused not of committing violence but of benefitting from and doing
little to stop attacks against the protestors by government forces. Some
analysts argue that it is unrealistic to expect corporations to play this kind
of role, which is properly the domain of government.
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Corruption
The abuse of power for private gain, including bribery,
extortion, fraud, nepotism, embezzlement, falsification of records, kickbacks,
and influence peddling. Although commonly associated with the public sector, it
also exists in the business and NGO sectors.
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Crimes against humanity
Mass killings and targeted attacks against civilians,
including systematic rape. These crimes are described more fully in the Rome
Statute of the International Criminal Court, article 7. To be found guilty, an
individual must have developed or carried out a policy of widespread or
systematic violations. Crimes against humanity do not require the specific
intent that genocide does.
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Crisis management
The attempt to control events during a crisis to prevent
significant and systematic violence from occurring or escalating. It usually
involves finding a balance between coercion and accommodation.
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Culture
The shared beliefs, traits, attitudes, behavior, products,
and artifacts common to a particular social or ethnic group. The term
cross-cultural refers to interactions across cultures and reflects the fact
that different cultures may have different communication styles and negotiating
behavior. The term multicultural refers to the acceptance of different ethnic
cultures within a society. Cultural sensitivitymeans being aware of cultural
differences and how they affect behavior, and moving beyond cultural biases and
preconceptions to interact effectively. See also Communication styles.
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Cyber-attacks
The use of computers and the Internet to disrupt computer
networks and telecommunications infrastructure. These attacks range from
low-level vandalism to efforts to disable major electric power grids. Most
attacks have caused only minor disruptions but some analysts see the potential
for far greater damage.
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Declaration of principles
A negotiating framework that provides the overall structure
for a subsequent detailed peace agreement. It usually contains the broad
outlines of an agreement, stated in general terms and acceptable to the parties
at the table, political leaders, and the general public.
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Democracy
A state or community in which all adult members of society
partake in a free and fair electoral process that determines government
leadership, have access to power through their representatives, and enjoy
universally recognized freedoms and liberties. Democracy building or
democratization is the exercise of consolidating and strengthening institutions
that help to support democratic government. These institutions may relate to
rule of law initiatives, political party development, constitution building,
public administration development, and civil society education programs.
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Deterrence
An effort by one actor to persuade an opponent not to take
an action by convincing the opponent that the costs and risks of doing so will
outweigh what might be gained. See also Coercive diplomacy.
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Developed and developing countries
There is no consensus on the standard for categorizing
countries as developed or developing. In general, developed countries have a
higher per capita income, and developing countries have a lower per capita
income and a less developed industrial base. Related terms include
underdeveloped countries and least developed countries.
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Development
In general, development is the process of improving people’s
lives. Originally, the term focused on the goal of greater economic prosperity
and opportunity. But it now typically includes efforts at human development
that take into account such issues as governance, education, the environment,
and human rights.
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Development aid
Assistance given to developing countries to support their
economic, social, and political development. Such assistance usually comes from
individual countries or from international organizations such as the UN
Development Program and the World Bank Group. Development aid tends to be aimed
at long-term problems such as poverty, whereas humanitarian aid is usually
aimed at short-term problems such as providing clean water or food. Tied aid
refers to the practice by most donors of insisting that aid be spent on goods
and services from the donor country. Conditional aid refers to assistance that
comes with specific requirements that the recipient must meet, such as reducing
corruption or fighting terrorism; it is meant to change behavior.
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Dialogue
A conversation or exchange of ideas that seeks mutual
understanding through the sharing of perspectives. Dialogue is a process for
learning about another group's beliefs, feelings, interests, and needs in a
non-adversarial, open way, usually with the help of a third-party facilitator.
Facilitated dialogue is a face-to-face process, often among elites. It takes
place at a meeting site, whereas other third-party assisted processes may occur
indirectly or by means of proximity talks.
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Diaspora
The movement, migration, or scattering of a people away from
an established or ancestral homeland. Also, a group of such people.
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Diplomacy
The fundamental means by which foreign policy is
implemented. Official or track 1 diplomacy is typically carried out by
government officials, who use bargaining, negotiation, and other peaceful means
to negotiate treaties, trade policies, and other international agreements,
including agreements to prevent, limit, manage, or settle conflicts. Unofficial
or nonofficial (also called citizen or track 2) diplomacy refers to the use of
nontraditional diplomatic agents, including business executives, religious
figures, nongovernmental organizations, academics, and other private citizens
who are typically conducting dialogue and problem-solving activities. The term
preventive diplomacy is sometimes used as a synonym for conflict prevention.
See also Citizen diplomacy, Public diplomacy, and Tracks of diplomacy.
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Disappearances
A euphemism for politically motivated murders or abductions,
usually performed by or with the support of government or political
organizations.
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Disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR)
The process of disarming soldiers or other fighters,
disbanding their military units, and helping them integrate socially and
economically into society by finding civilian livelihoods. This can be done by
comprehensive programs offering skills training, job creation, housing,
psychological assistance, and re-socialization.
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Displaced person
See Internally displaced person and Refugee.
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Do no harm
A maxim that acknowledges that any intervention carries with
it the risk of doing harm. Practitioners should proceed with programs only
after careful consideration and widespread consultation, including with other
institutions in the field so as not to duplicate or undercut their efforts. In
assistance activities, the maxim recognizes that resources inevitably represent
the distribution of power and wealth and will create tensions if careful
attention is not given to how they are distributed and delivered.
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Donor coordination
A term that describes efforts to integrate the work of
donors, the host government, and local nongovernmental organizations so as to
avoid duplication and inefficiencies.
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Early warning
The assessment of high-risk situations so as to provide
timely notice of escalating violence. Early warning systems have been used to
assess environmental threats, the risk of nuclear accident, natural disasters,
mass movements of populations, the threat of famine, and the spread of disease,
as well as violent conflict.
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Elections
The process by which citizens typically choose their
representatives to the legislature and sometimes to the executive and judiciary
branches. Voting systems vary widely, but most are either proportional or
majoritarian. It is important to note that holding elections is only one part
of democracy building.
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Eminent persons
A group of distinguished and well-respected individuals
typically gathered together for a specific task, such as the Panel of Eminent
Persons on United Nations–Civil Society Relations, the OSCE Panel of Eminent
Persons asked to draw up a new vision
for OSCE, and the ASEAN Eminent Persons Group tasked to create a charter for
ASEAN.
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Environmental security
A relatively new field that focuses on the connections among
environment, resources, security, conflict, and peacemaking.
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Escalation
An increase in intensity or scope of a conflict. The number
of parties tends to increase, as does the number and breadth of the issues.
De-escalation is the lessening of the intensity of a conflict as parties tire
out or begin to realize that the conflict is doing them more harm than good, or
as conflict management efforts begin to take effect. The ultimate intent of
de-escalation is to create space for more intensive efforts to resolve the
conflict.
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Ethics
The principles of conduct—right and wrong behavior—governing
an individual or a group.
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Ethnic cleansing
Deliberate, organized, and usually violent expulsion of
people from an area on the basis of their perceived ethnic, communal,
sectarian, or religious identity.
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Evaluation
The systematic collection and analysis of data on a program,
both as to the process and outputs (materials and activities) and the impact or
outcome (immediate and longer term effects). See also Metrics, Monitoring, and
Outputs and outcomes.
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Facilitation
The process or set of skills by which a third party attempts
to help the disputants move toward resolution of their dispute. Facilitation
can operate at many levels, from providing good offices to a more active role
as a mediator. It may mean helping the parties set ground rules and agendas for
meetings, helping with communication between the parties, and analysis of the
situation and possible outcomes—in general, helping the participants keep on
track and working toward their mutual goals. It may also mean helping them set
those goals. See alsoDialogue and Mediation.
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Fact-finding
An investigation of a dispute by an impartial third party
that examines the issues and facts in the case and may issue a report and
recommended settlement (for example, the Independent International Fact-Finding
Mission on the Conflict in Georgia established by the Council of the European
Union). A related term isCommission of Inquiry (for example, the International
Commission of Inquiry on Darfur established by the United Nations).
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Failed state
A state that is unable to provide reasonable public
services, often because of war, genocide, corruption, mismanagement, or
criminal threats. Some analysts use the term collapsed state to refer to a
situation where national structures have essentially dissolved and there is an
almost complete vacuum of authority. Aweak or fragile state may be on the verge
of failure because of instability and weak governance.
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Federalism
A system of governance characterized by two or more levels
of government, each directly elected by its citizens and constitutionally
empowered with legislative authority sufficient to achieve a degree of genuine
autonomy. It is a power-sharing arrangement especially favored by large,
culturally diverse countries such as India, Nigeria, the United States, and,
formerly, Yugoslavia.
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Foreign aid
A technique of statecraft whereby economic and technical
assistance are used as instruments of policy in order to achieve certain goals.
There are three main types of foreign aid—humanitarian, military, and
development. Aid may be bilateral or multilateral, the latter usually being
channeled through an international body.
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Fragility
The term fragility can refer to humans, states, or the
environment. A fragile state typically suffers from weak authority, legitimacy,
and capacity. The drivers of fragility can be economic and social inequalities,
lack of effective channels for the peaceful expression of people’s demands and
expectations, economic decline, and competition over natural resources. See
also Failed state.
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Gacaca
The Rwandan government’s community-based judicial process,
established in 2001 to help deal with the massive number of detainees accused
of committing crimes against humanity during the 1994 genocide. These courts
were closed in 2009.
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Game theory
See Win-win versus zero-sum.
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Gender sensitivity
The ability to recognize gender issues, especially the
ability to recognize women’s different perspectives and interests arising from
their different social situations and different gender roles. Gender
sensitivity is considered the beginning stage of gender awareness, leading to
efforts to address gender-related impacts of conflict and peacebuilding. See
also Gender-based violence andSexual violence.
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Gender-based violence
Violence directed against individuals or groups on the basis
of their gender or sex. It includes acts or threats of acts that inflict
physical or mental harm or suffering, coercion, and other deprivations of
liberty, including rape, torture, mutilation, sexual slavery, forced
impregnation, and murder. Although men and boys can be victims of gender-based
violence, women and girls are the primary victims. See also Gender sensitivity
and Sexual violence.
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Geneva Conventions
The Geneva Conventions consist of four treaties, with
subsequent additions and revisions. They set the widely accepted legal
standards for humane treatment of noncombatants (medical and religious
personnel and civilians) and combatants who are no longer able to fight,
including the sick, wounded, and prisoners of war. The first convention was
adopted in 1864 and the fourth in 1949; the most recent protocol was added in
2005.
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Genocide
The Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime
of Genocide defines genocide as “any of a number of acts committed with the
intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnic, racial or religious
group: killing members of the group; causing serious bodily or mental harm to
members of the group; deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life
calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;
imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group, and forcibly
transferring children of the group to another group.”
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Good offices
Typically, low-key actions by a third party to bring
opposing parties to dialogue or negotiation. Good offices may include informal
consultations to facilitate communication; offer of transportation, security,
or site of venue; or fact-finding. The third party may suggest ways into
negotiations and a settlement but usually stops short of participating in
negotiations. Norway’s role in the 1993 Oslo Accords concerning the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a classic example of good offices. Mediation
and conciliation tend to be more active roles than good offices.
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Governance
Typically, low-key actions by a third party to bring
opposing parties to dialogue or negotiation. Good offices may include informal
consultations to facilitate communication; offer of transportation, security,
or site of venue; or fact-finding. The third party may suggest ways into
negotiations and a settlement but usually stops short of participating in
negotiations. Norway’s role in the 1993 Oslo Accords concerning the
Israeli-Palestinian conflict is a classic example of good offices. Mediation
and conciliation tend to be more active roles than good offices.
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Guarantor
A state, group of states, international organization, or
other entity such as an alliance that is obliged to ensure the maintenance of
an agreement, in some cases by the use of force. In its original usage, the
term usually referred to a formal, legal commitment to take action in the event
of a breach of obligations by a party to a treaty. In recent years, the term
has been used more loosely to refer to a party that monitors or bears witness
to an accord.
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Guerrilla war
Warfare conducted by an irregular military or paramilitary
unit using techniques such as harassment, sabotage, and surprise attacks
against a more powerful force. Guerrilla groups may seize control of and live
among unarmed civilian populations that are influenced to provide labor, food,
and other supplies. Successful guerrilla campaigns are usually protracted and
have the support of the local population as well as external assistance.
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Hate speech
Speech that is intended to foster hatred against groups
based on race, religion, gender, sexual preference, national origin, or other
traits. At the least it fosters hatred and discrimination, and at its worst it
promotes violence and killing.
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Holocaust
When capitalized, the term refers specifically to the
genocide of European Jews and others by Nazi Germany and its collaborators
during the 1930s and 1940s.
Tags: H
Host country ownership
See Local ownership.
Tags: H
Human capital
The stock of knowledge and skill embodied in the population
of an economy. It can be increased through investments in education,
healthcare, and job training. A related term is social capital, the resources
that create a strong network of institutionalized relationships in society.
These connections between individuals and between social networks facilitate
civic engagement and encourage bargaining, compromise, and pluralistic
politics, as well as contributing to economic and social development.
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Human rights
The basic prerogatives and freedoms to which all humans are
entitled. Supported by the United Nation's Universal Declaration of Human
Rights of 1948 and several international agreements, these rights include the
right to life, liberty, education, and equality before law, and the right of
association, belief, free speech, religion, and movement.
Tags: H
Human security
See Security.
Tags: H
Humanitarian aid/assistance
Traditionally associated with natural disasters such as
floods, fires, and famines, but more recently applied to other disasters such
as social or political unrest, usually with the consent of the host country.
Assistance can include providing food, shelter, clothing, and medicine and
medical personnel; evacuating the most vulnerable; and restoring basic
amenities (water, sewage, power supplies). Aid can be given during the emergency
itself and in the rehabilitation phase.
Tags: H
Humanitarian intervention
Traditionally associated with natural disasters such as
floods, fires, and famines, but more recently applied to other disasters such
as social or political unrest, usually with the consent of the host country.
Assistance can include providing food, shelter, clothing, and medicine and
medical personnel; evacuating the most vulnerable; and restoring basic
amenities (water, sewage, power supplies). Aid can be given during the emergency
itself and in the rehabilitation phase.
Tags: H
Identity
Identity refers to the way people see themselves—the groups
they feel a part of, the aspects of themselves that they use to describe
themselves. Some theorists distinguish between collective identity, social
identity, and personal identity. However, all are related in one way or another
to a description of who one is, and how one fits into his or her social group
and society over all. Identity conflicts are conflicts that develop when a
person or group feels that their sense of self is threatened or denied legitimacy
or respect. Religious, ethnic, and racial conflicts are examples of identity
conflicts. Identity politics tries to exploit those conflicts for political
advantage.
Tags: I
Ideology
A system of beliefs or theories, usually about politics or
culture, held by an individual or a group.
Tags: I
Impartiality
Regarding foreign aid, impartiality means assistance must be
based on need alone, without regard to nationality, race, religion, class, or
politics; it does not imply equal provision of aid, however. In mediation or
peacekeeping, impartiality means treating the contending sides equitably and
with fairness. See alsoNeutrality.
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Individualism versus collectivism
Broadly speaking, individualism refers to societies that
stress individual identity over group identity. Individualism is associated
with values like self-sufficiency, individual responsibilities, and personal
autonomy. Collectivism, on the other hand, is the norm in societies that tend
to emphasize “we” over “I.” Here, group rights predominate over individual
rights and in-group oriented needs over individual wants and desires.
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Informal economy
The exchange of goods and services that is usually neither
taxed nor regulated by the government. It may be done through barter or sale, and
may include such activities as day care, tutoring, and street trading as well
as illegal or black market exchanges. Also called the parallel, shadow, or
underground economy.
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Information and communication technologies (ICTs)
A diverse set of tools used to create, disseminate, and
manage information. These technologies include the Internet, intranets,
wireless networks, and cell phones, as well as such services as
videoconferencing and distance learning. The new ICTs have led to the
development of a new vocabulary, including such terms as blogosphere (the
connected community of blogs), citizen journalism(nonprofessionals creating
their own media to report and disseminate the news), and crowd sourcing
(outsourcing a task to a group of people through a collaborative open call).
Tags: I
Infrastructure
The system of public works of a country, state, or region,
including highways, airports, and facilities for waste treatment and water
supply, electricity, and communications. Some analysts use the term more
broadly to include political and socioeconomic aspects.
Tags: I
Instability
A situation in which the parties perceive one another as
enemies and maintain deterrent military capabilities, although armed force is
not deployed. The threat of violence is absent or only sporadic. A balance of
power may discourage aggression, but crisis and war are still possible. On the
conflict curve, instability is located between peace and violent conflict.
Tags: I
Insurgency
Paramilitary, guerrilla, or other uprisings directed against
a state from within in order to achieve political objectives. Insurgencies
typically aim to either replace the current regime, or to secede from the
state. Successful insurgencies have the support of the local population. For
that reason, counterinsurgency efforts seek to separate the insurgents from the
population by winning their “hearts and minds,” typically by undertaking badly
needed reforms.Tags: I
Interests
See Positions versus interests.
Tags: I
Just war theory
The belief that the use of military force is acceptable only
if it meets certain standards: right authority, just cause, right intention,
last resort, proportional means, and reasonable prospects of success. The
actual conduct of the war must meet the standards of proportional means and
discrimination (immunity for noncombatants). Note that different sources cite
somewhat different standards.
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Justice
The minimum form of justice is fair and equal treatment
before the law—a system of rule of law based on legal procedures that apply to
all members of society.Social justice refers to a situation characterized by
rule of law and fair distribution of resources and opportunities in society.
Some see justice as a prerequisite for a stable and lasting order, others argue
that there can be no justice without order. Access to justice refers to efforts
to make the justice system accessible to those who are otherwise excluded.
Non-state justice, also called customary or traditional justice, refers to the
settlement of disputes outside the formal state justice system, for example
through tribal and community councils. Such mechanisms are widely used in rural
and poor urban areas but sometimes reinforce local inequities and social
exclusion, especially concerning women.
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Knowledge transfer
The process of sharing information and skills with a target
audience and enabling them to integrate that knowledge into their daily
practice. Full integration occurs when they can pass the knowledge along to
others. Knowledge transfer can be accomplished by such methods as education,
training, mentoring, advising, and shadowing.
Tags: K
Legitimacy
In terms of an intervention, legitimacy refers to the degree
to which: (a) the operation is authorized by an appropriate international or
regional body, and (b) the operation’s mandate and conduct are accepted or at
least tolerated by the affected population and the host country government.
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Leverage
The power that one party has to influence the behavior of
another. Leverage can come from many sources, such as being able to wait longer
than the other party, or having something the other party wants or needs.
Leverage can be raised through facilitation, communication (providing
translation or intelligence), or manipulation (reframing, rearranging,
relocating).
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Liberalism
A school of thought that argues that peace can best be
achieved by the spread of democracy, freedom and equality, a market economy,
the rule of law, and collective security. Traditionally, liberalism focused on
limiting government power, but more recently it became associated with
government efforts to ensure individual welfare, and to use international law
to promote liberty and justice abroad. Liberalism is often contrasted with
realism. Neo-liberalism adds to the traditional view an emphasis on institution
building and the work of international organizations, nongovernmental
organizations, multinational corporations, and other nonstate actors. See also
Realism.
Tags: L
Local ownership
Tags: L
Mass atrocities
Large-scale and deliberate attacks on civilians. The victims
of mass atrocities are typically targeted because of their identification as
members of a group. See alsothe related terms genocide, crimes against
humanity, war crimes, and ethnic cleansing, but note that the distinctions
between these related terms are not always clear.
Tags: M
Media peacebuilding
The notion that it is desirable and possible to enhance the
capacity of media for building peace. Conflict-sensitive journalism goes beyond
this by encouraging journalists to be aware of what effects their language and
reporting can have on the conflict. Peace journalism is a more agenda-driven
reporting style. It approaches activism, as it focuses attention on the search
for nonviolent solutions to conflict. Media strategies include citizen media
(blogs, wikis, etc.), social marketing, and media regulation.
Tags: M
Mediation
A mode of negotiation in which a mutually acceptable third
party helps the parties to a conflict find a solution that they cannot find by
themselves. It is a three-sided political process in which the mediator builds
and then draws upon relationships with the other two parties to help them reach
a settlement. Unlike judges or arbitrators, mediators have no authority to
decide the dispute between the parties, although powerful mediators may bring
to the table considerable capability to influence the outcome. Mediators are
typically from outside the conflict. Sometimes mediators are impartial and
neutral, in other cases they have a strategic interest that motivates them to
promote a negotiated outcome. Mediators may focus on facilitating communication
and negotiation but they also may offer solutions and use leverage, including
positive and negative incentives, to persuade the parties to achieve an
agreement.
Tags: M
Metrics
Tags: M
Monitoring
Measurable indicators of progress, typically to assist in
implementing an agreement. The most useful metrics gauge impact or outcomes,
such as fewer weapons-related deaths, reduced child mortality, increased
literacy, and reduced gender disparity in education, rather than input.
Tags: M
Multitrack diplomacy
See Tracks of diplomacy.
Tags: M
Mutually hurting stalemate
A situation in which neither party thinks it can win a given
conflict without incurring excessive loss, and in which both are suffering from
a continuation of fighting. The conflict is judged to have entered a period of
ripeness, a propitious moment for third party mediation. There is a substantial
literature concerning the conditions, implications, and utility of “ripeness”
as an analytical tool.
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Narrative versus story
In the context of international relations, narrative means
much more than just a story. It might be understood as a people’s most strongly
held beliefs about the way history has unfolded. This is not only an
explanation of events, but also a separate view of reality. In divided
societies —where there has been protracted conflict—there are often parallel
narratives. The differing peoples do not agree on what occurred in the distant
past and this core disagreement often causes them to dispute what has happened
in recent times.
Tags: N
Nation versus state
See State versus nation.
Tags: N
Nationalism
A sentiment of loyalty toward the nation that is shared by
people. Elements of cohesion are provided by such factors as language,
religion, historical experience, and physical closeness, although no one factor
seems to be necessary. Such bonds subjectively define a group of people as
different from their neighbors. See also State versus nation.
Tags: N
Negotiation
The process of communication and bargaining between parties
seeking to arrive at a mutually acceptable outcome on issues of shared concern.
The process typically involves compromise and concessions and is designed to
result in an agreement, although sometimes a party participates in negotiations
for other reasons (to score propaganda points or to appease domestic political
forces, for example). Pre-negotiation refers to preliminary talks to agree on
such issues as the format, procedures, time frame, who will participate, and
sometimes the scope of the formal talks. Endgame refers to the final stages of
a negotiation, when substantive progress has been made but important details
remain to be ironed out and the agreement hammered into final form.
Tags: N
Neutrality
A deliberate policy of not taking sides in hostilities or,
for many NGOs, of not engaging in controversies involving politics, race,
religion, or ideology. See alsoImpartiality.
Tags: N
Nongovernmental organization (NGO)
A private, self-governing, nonprofit organization dedicated
to advancing an objective or objectives such as alleviating human suffering;
promoting education, health care, economic development, environmental
protection, human rights, and conflict resolution; and encouraging the establishment
of democratic institutions and civil society. Some people use the term
international nongovernmental organization (INGO) to differentiate those
organizations that transcend national boundaries from local NGOs. Also known as
private voluntary organizations, civic associations, nonprofits, and charitable
organizations.
Tags: N
Nonprofit versus not-for-profit
These terms are generally used interchangeably, although
some analysts use the term nonprofit only for those organizations that have a
formal legal existence or charter.
Tags: N
Nonstate actor
A large category that includes nongovernmental
organizations, multinational corporations, media, terrorist groups, warlords,
insurgents, criminal organizations, religious groups, trade unions,
universities, and diaspora communities. Most types of nonstate actors would be
considered part of civil society. Also called nonofficial actors.
Tags: N
Nonviolent civic action
Action, usually undertaken by a group of people, to persuade
someone else to change their behavior. Examples include strikes, boycotts,
marches, and demonstrations. Nonviolent civic action can be categorized into
three main classes: protest and persuasion, noncooperation, and intervention.
It operates on the precept that all political relationships require varying
degrees of cooperation or acquiescence, which can be withdrawn. Nonviolent
civic action is also known asstrategic nonviolence, nonviolent resistance,
direct action, and civil resistance. Gandhi used the term Satyagraha, roughly
translated as “firmness in truth,” to describe his concept of nonviolent
action.
Tags: N
Outputs and outcomes
In performance assessment, outputs are the products or
services delivered (often called deliverables); outcomes are the impacts on
social, economic, or other indicators arising from the delivery of outputs. See
also Evaluation and Metrics.
Tags: O
Pacifism
The rejection of war or violence as a means of resolving
conflict. Some pacifists reject violence under all circumstances, even
self-defense. Others make exceptions for certain circumstances such as the
Holocaust. Some pacifists will take part in noncombat activities such as
providing medical care. For some, pacifism includes nonviolent action to
promote justice and human rights, but it is not a pre-condition.
Tags
Tags: P
Parties to the conflict
The disputants can be divided into first or primary parties,
those who have decision-making power and must be involved in any negotiation,
and secondary parties, those who have a less direct stake but can affect the
outcome by supporting or repudiating actions of the first parties.
Tags: P
Peace
The word “peace” evokes complex, sometimes contradictory,
interpretations and reactions. For some, peace means the absence of conflict.
For others it means the end of violence or the formal cessation of hostilities;
for still others, the return to resolving conflict by political means. Some
define peace as the attainment of justice and social stability; for others it
is economic well-being and basic freedom. Peacemaking can be a dynamic process
of ending conflict through negotiation or mediation. Peace is often unstable,
as sources of conflict are seldom completely resolved or eliminated. Since
conflict is inherent in the human condition, the striving for peace is
particularly strong in times of violent conflict. That said, a willingness to
accommodate perpetrators of violence without resolving the sources of
conflict—sometimes called “peace at any price”—may lead to greater conflict
later.
Tags: P
Peace (and conflict) studies
An interdisciplinary field of study that focuses on conflict
analysis, conflict management, and conflict transformation; nonviolent
sanctions; peacebuilding, peacekeeping, and peace enforcement; social and
economic justice; war’s causes and conduct; and international and domestic
security. Peace research is a constituent element of peace studies, drawing on
the work of academicians and nongovernmental organizations alike. Although
peace studies generally refers to college-level work, the term peace education
encompasses all levels of students.
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Peace dividend
The benefit a country receives from cutting back military
spending, especially after the end of a war. The “dividend” comes when the
money is redirected to social programs or to tax reductions.
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Peace enforcement
Coercive action undertaken with the authorization of the
United Nations Security Council to end armed hostilities, restore a cease-fire,
or enforce a peace agreement. It includes diplomatic and military measures, the
latter usually being carried out by a third-party or multinational force.
Enforcement operations do not require the consent of the affected parties.
Tags: P
Peace operation
A generic term sometimes used to encompass peacemaking,
peacekeeping, peace enforcement, and peacebuilding, the lines between which are
not always clear.
Tags: P
Peace process
Series of steps or phases in a negotiation or mediation that
are necessary in order to eventually reach a peace agreement and sometimes to
implement one. These steps are not necessarily sequential or linear. They may
include confidence-building measures, risk-reduction strategies, good offices,
fact-finding or observer missions, conciliation and mediation efforts, and
deployment of international forces.
Tags: P
Peacebuilding
Originally conceived in the context of post-conflict
recovery efforts to promote reconciliation and reconstruction, the term
peacebuilding has more recently taken on a broader meaning. It may include
providing humanitarian relief, protecting human rights, ensuring security,
establishing nonviolent modes of resolving conflicts, fostering reconciliation,
providing trauma healing services, repatriating refugees and resettling
internally displaced persons, supporting broad-based education, and aiding in
economic reconstruction. As such, it also includes conflict prevention in the
sense of preventing the recurrence of violence, as well as conflict management
and post-conflict recovery. In a larger sense, peacebuilding involves a
transformation toward more manageable, peaceful relationships and governance structures—the
long-term process of addressing root causes and effects, reconciling
differences, normalizing relations, and building institutions that can manage
conflict without resort to violence.
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Peacekeeping
Traditionally, action undertaken to preserve peace where
fighting has been halted and to assist in implementing agreements achieved by
the peacemakers. Typically authorized by the UN Security Council under Chapter
6 or 7 of the UN Charter, these operations usually include lightly armed military
personnel and have the consent of the parties. The scope of peacekeeping
activities has gradually broadened since the end of the Cold War to include
civilian and humanitarian activities such as food distribution, electoral
assistance, refugee return and reintegration, civilian protection and
prevention of gender-based violence, restoration of transportation and other
basic services, and establishing safe havens. In recent years, peacekeepers
have been placed in areas where fighting is continuing, and their role is more
to position themselves between hostile parties, a situation in which there is
often a mismatch between their mandate and their capability.
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Peacemaking
Activities to halt ongoing conflicts and bring hostile
parties to agreement, essentially through such peaceful means as those foreseen
in Chapter 6 of the Charter of the United Nations: “negotiation, enquiry,
mediation, conciliation, arbitration, judicial settlement, resort to regional
agencies or agreements, or other peaceful means.” Peacemaking typically
involves the process of negotiating an agreement between contending parties,
often with the help of a third-party mediator. A closely related term is conflict
management.
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Political violence
Organized or systematic use of force, the motive for which
is primarily political, that is, aimed at influencing government policy, rather
than criminal. It can include terrorism, rebellion, war, conquest, revolution,
oppression, and tyranny.
Tags: P
Positions versus interests
Broadly speaking, positions are what parties say they want.
Interests are what they really need. Interests are frequently unstated and may
be difficult to identify. Often parties’ interests are compatible, and hence
negotiable, even when their positions do not seem to be. Focusing on underlying
interests can help parties identify which issues are of most concern to them
and to find solutions that might not be evident from their stated positions.
Some analysts distinguish between interests and needs, arguing that needs such
as identity and security are more fundamental than interests. Some analysts
also distinguish between interests and values, the ideas we have about what is
good or worthwhile.
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Post-conflict recovery
The long-term rebuilding of a society in the aftermath of
violent conflict. It includes political, socioeconomic, and physical aspects
such as disarming and reintegrating combatants, resettling internally displaced
persons, reforming governmental institutions, promoting trauma work and
reconciliation, delivering justice, restarting the economy, and rebuilding
damaged infrastructure. Related terms include war-to-peace transitions and
post-conflict reconstruction. The term “recovery” has a broader connotation
than reconstruction, which implies an emphasis on physical aspects.
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Power
The ability to influence others to get a particular outcome.
It may involve coercing them with threats, providing inducements, or coopting them.
Hard power refers to the use of military and economic means to influence the
behavior of others through coercion or inducements. Soft power refers to the
ability to attract or coopt others through one’s values, policies, and
performance. The term smart power encompasses both hard and soft power,
emphasizing the need to employ whatever tools—diplomatic, economic, military,
political, legal, scientific, and cultural—are appropriate for the situation.
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Power sharing
A system of governance in which different segments of
society are provided a share of power. Traditionally, that has meant coalition
governments, minimum representation in government institutions, and decision
making requiring a high threshold or consensus. Power-sharing arrangements often
increase the legitimacy of governments, especially in diverse societies, but
because of their emphasis on group rights and consensus, some power-sharing
arrangements lead to deadlock.
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Preventive diplomacy
See Conflict prevention.
Tags: P
Prisoner of war
A combatant captured in war, especially a member of the
armed forces of a country who is taken by the enemy during combat.
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Problem-solving workshop
An informal, confidential dialogue workshop that brings
together adversaries to reevaluate their attitudes and think creatively about
joint solutions. These face-to-face meetings occur outside the context of
diplomatic negotiations, but may feed into them. As such, they are a kind of
track 2 diplomacy.
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Proliferation
Traditionally, the term proliferation has referred to the
spread of nuclear weapons. In conflict management, however, proliferation also
refers to the illicit trade in small arms and light weapons (everything from
pistols to machine guns to anti-tank missiles and landmines), the kinds of
weapons that fuel most violent conflicts. But the term can also refer to all
conventional weapons (meaning all weapons short of weapons of mass
destruction).
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Proximity talks
Diplomatic discussions conducted through an intermediary,
usually because the disputants are unwilling to meet face to face but are in
separate locations close to each other. The hope is that proximity talks will
lead to direct negotiations. A closely related term is shuttle diplomacy, which
usually means that the intermediary travels back and forth between the
disputants’ places of business.
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Public diplomacy
Advocacy openly directed at foreign publics in support of
negotiations or broad policy positions and to enlist their backing for a
particular position or outcome.
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Rapprochement
Restoration or establishment of improved relations between
states and governments that were previously estranged.
Tags: R
Rational choice theory
From the field of economics, the theory that people act
rationally, that is, they try to maximize gains and minimize losses.
Consequently, it should be possible to build models to make predictions about
future actions.
Tags: R
Readiness
In mediation, readiness means having operational and
political capacity (requisite people and skills, necessary resources and
institutional support, solid and durable mandate, and the right leadership) and
strategic and diplomatic capacity (the ability to catalyze international
coalitions and orchestrate initiatives).
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Realism or realpolitik
A school of thought that views the international system as
inherently chaotic and sees the state as the primary actor in international
politics; the state’s goal is therefore the pursuit of power to protect its
interests and ensure its survival. Neo-realism, or structural realism, adds to
this traditional view an emphasis on how the structural constraints of the
international system (for example, alliances, international agreements,
accepted norms, globalization, dependency) affect the behavior of individual
states. See also Liberalism.
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Reconciliation
The long-term process by which the parties to a violent
dispute build trust, learn to live cooperatively, and create a stable peace. It
can happen at the individual level, the community level, and the national
level. It may involve dialogue, admissions of guilt, judicial processes, truth
commissions, ritual forgiveness, andsulha (a traditional Arabic form of ritual
forgiveness and restitution).
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Reconstruction
The process of rebuilding degraded, damaged, or destroyed
political, socioeconomic, and physical infrastructure of a country or territory
to create the foundation for long-term development. See also Post-conflict
recovery.
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Reframing
To look at a problem from new perspectives in order to find
ways to reduce tensions or break a deadlock. Reframing is the process of
redefining a situation—seeing a conflict in a new way, usually based on input
from other people.
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Refugee
A person who has been forced to leave their home, in
particular as a result of armed conflict, generalized violence, violations of
human rights, or natural or human-made disasters, and has crossed an
internationally recognized state border. Some sources restrict use of the term
refugee to individuals with a well-founded fear of being persecuted for reasons
of race, religion, nationality, membership of a social group, or political
opinion. See also Internally displaced person.
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Regime type
The set of political institutions by which a government of a
state is organized. Regime types include democracy, dictatorship, monarchy, and
theocracy. Many governments include in their official name a specific
government type, for example: commonwealth, emirate, federation, kingdom,
republic.
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Regional organization
Intergovernmental organization that focuses on a specific
geographic area or group of countries, such as the African Union, Arab League,
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, European Union, and Organization of
American States.
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Religion
Like peace, religion is difficult to define. It has been
described as a personal set or institutionalized system of religious attitudes,
beliefs, and practices. For our purposes, we might think of religion as a kind
of “deep culture,” sometimes shaping a society in ways that people do not
realize. For example, the language of a development or justice program that
western professionals believe to be neutral might be seen as too “Christian” by
a local Buddhist, Hindu, or Muslim person.
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Rent seeking
A somewhat confusing term that does not refer to rent in the
usual sense but instead refers to lobbying the government for special
privileges such as a subsidy, a tariff on competing goods, or a regulation that
hampers competition.
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Reparations
Compensation for war damage by a defeated state, or
compensation to victims of mass crime committed by a former regime.
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Resource curse or the paradox of plenty
the argument that mismanagement of natural resource
abundance often produces weak states, little to no growth, and conflict. In the
Dutch disease, abundant natural resources contribute to economic stagnation
because capital and labor only focus on the booming natural resources for
tradable exports. In thehoney pot effect, abundant supplies of valuable local
resources create incentives for rebel groups to form and fight to capture the
resource. In rentier states, governments that take in a significant amount of
revenue (“rents,” or excess profits) from natural resource exports are prone to
corruption because they can afford to buy off or intimidate opponents.
Tags: R
Responsibility to protect (R2P or RTP)
A recently developed concept, R2P asserts that states have
an ethical and legal responsibility to protect their people against genocide,
war crimes, crimes against humanity, and ethnic cleansing, but if a state is
unable or unwilling to do so, that responsibility falls to the international
community, which may intervene militarily in extreme cases. A controversial
concept, R2P can be applied to all parts of the conflict curve, for those who
accept its far-reaching implications.
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Right of return
The right of any person to re-enter his or her country of
origin. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that "everyone
has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his
country." Many countries have enacted laws concerning the right of return,
mostly to facilitate the immigration of members of diaspora communities.
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Ripeness
Period in a conflict where parties are most likely to be
open to negotiation, usually due to conditions of a mutually hurting stalemate.
A conflict is said to be ripe when it has reached such a stalemate and all the
parties have determined that their alternatives to negotiation will not get
them what they want or need. It is also possible for third parties to help
create a perception of ripeness by introducing alternative ways of framing a
conflict or by providing actual incentives or disincentives.
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Risk management
The identification of risks to an organization and the
development of strategies and techniques to confront them. Such risks might
include accidents, natural disasters, wars, and financial issues.
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Rule of law
A principle of governance in which all persons and
institutions, public and private, including the state itself, are accountable
to laws that are publicly announced, equally enforced and independently
adjudicated, and consistent with international human rights norms and standards.
The drafting of laws must be transparent, and they must be applied fairly and
without arbitrariness. In addition, all persons must have access to justice—the
ability to seek and obtain a remedy through informal or formal institutions of
justice.
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Rules of engagement (ROE)
The rules delineating the circumstances and limitations
under which force should be used by the military or police, including when,
where, and against whom.
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Sanctions
Actions typically taken by countries to influence the
behavior of other parties. Sanctions can be diplomatic (reduction of diplomatic
ties, for example), economic (embargoes, freezing of assets), personal
(targeted travel bans), or cultural (limits on educational exchanges). The
effectiveness of sanctions has been much debated, as have the detrimental
effects on innocent civilians.
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Security
Traditionally, security has meant freedom from military
attack and has been synonymous with national security. In addition, a state
could enter into alliances that provided collective security. More recently,
the concept has expanded to include environmental and economic concerns. And
the termhuman security has been used to emphasize the need to focus on the
needs of the individual, including freedom from fear and freedom from want, as
well as specific needs such as food security.
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Security sector
The security sector is defined as those who are, or should
be, responsible for protecting the state and communities within the state. This
includes military, paramilitary, intelligence, border control, and police
services as well as those civilian structures responsible for oversight and
control of the security forces and for the administration of justice.
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Security sector reform (SSR)
The set of policies, plans, programs, and activities that a
government undertakes to improve the way it provides safety, security, and
justice.
Tags: S
Self-determination
he right of a people to determine its own political status.
That could mean full independence, or it could mean a greater degree of
autonomy and linguistic or religious identity within an existing state. See
also Autonomy.
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Sexual violence
A form of gender-based violence, sexual violence refers to
any act, attempt, or threat of a sexual nature that results, or is likely to
result in, physical or psychological harm. It includes all forms of sexual
exploitation and abuse, such as rape, spousal battering, sexual abuse of
children, dowry-related violence, marital rape, female genital mutilation,
sexual harassment and intimidation at work and in educational institutions, and
trafficking and forced prostitution. Sexual violence has also been used as a
tool of ethnic cleansing, as has been recently documented in Bosnia and Darfur.
See also Gender-based violence andGender sensitivity.
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Shuttle diplomacy
See Proximity talks.
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Side payment
A payment made to a party or parties to induce them to join
an agreement. Such inducements frequently take the form of aid or trade
preferences.
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Social capital
See Human capital.
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Social contract
An implicit agreement among individuals or between them and
their government in which they give up part of their freedom in exchange for
such benefits as social order and security.
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Social media
Internet-based applications that allow users with little
technical knowledge to create and share content. They include blogs, wikis,
social networking web sites like Facebook and LinkedIn, photo- and
video-sharing sites like Flickr and YouTube, news aggregation sites, and social
bookmarking sites (for sharing web bookmarks). This use of the web as a social
platform is sometimes referred to asWeb 2.0. See also Media peacebuilding.
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Social well-being
A situation in which basic human needs are met and people
are able to coexist peacefully in communities with opportunities for
advancement. It is characterized by access to basic services (water, food,
shelter, and health services), provision of primary and secondary education,
return or resettlement of displaced persons, and restoration of social fabric
and community life. Social well-being is considered critical for societies
emerging from conflict— equally as important as security, rule of law, economic
development, and good governance.
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Soft power
See Power.
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Sovereignty
The principle that states have primacy over their internal
affairs. It is the basis for the international norm of noninterference in the
affairs of independent and self-governing states. In practice, however, state
sovereignty is not absolute and states restrict or share authority either
through their own volition (for example, through treaties or consent to
peacekeeping) or through the exercise of UN Security Council authority. See
also Autonomy and Responsibility to Protect.
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Spoiler
Anyone who seeks to block or sabotage a peace process or the
implementation of an agreement, usually because it threatens their power and
interests. See alsoConflict entrepreneur.
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Stability
The ability of a state to recover from disturbances and
resist sudden change or deterioration. Stabilization is the process of ending
or preventing the recurrence of violent conflict and creating the conditions
for normal economic activity and nonviolent politics. Stability operations work
to restore stability in post-conflict situations. See also Instability and
Post-conflict recovery.
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State versus nation
A state, or country, is a sovereign, self-governing
political entity, for example any state in the United Nations. (The term state
is also used to refer to a division of a federal system, as in the United
States.) A nation is a group of people who feel bound by a common language,
culture, religion, history, or ethnicity, such as the Kurds, who reside mostly
in Iran, Iraq, Syria, and Turkey, and the Basque, who inhabit parts of northern
Spain and southern France. A nation-state occurs when a nation and a state
largely coincide, for example Egypt, Hungary, and Japan. The terms state
building and nation building are most often used these days as synonyms to
refer to the process of building or rebuilding state institutions to create a
legitimate and sustainable state.
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Strategy versus tactics
Strategy is the activity, process, or plan to attain desired
objectives as efficiently as possible, usually in competition with others who
are developing similar activities. Tactics are limited and particular actions
decided on short-term bases. If conducted efficiently, the choice of tactics
will be informed by a strategy. For example, the strategy might call for a
boycott, but the tactics might include picketing.
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Summit meeting
A gathering of heads of government. At most summit meetings,
the principals’ main role is to put the finishing touches on agreements that
have already been negotiated at a lower level. Summits are also useful in
giving leaders opportunities to judge first-hand each other’s character and mode of operating.
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Sustainability
In general, the ability to maintain something indefinitely.
In capacity building, sustainability means creating capacity that will remain
in place and effective even after the initiative ends or the intervener
departs. In development, it means meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. In the
context of natural resources, sustainability refers to harnessing natural
resources without depleting them. In the broader context of the environment, it
means satisfying basic human needs while maintaining environmental quality.
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Terrorism
The use of violence, typically against civilians, for the
purpose of attracting attention to a political cause, encouraging others to
join in, or intimidating opponents into concessions. Some terrorists aim to
produce a harsh reaction by their opponents that will in turn generate support
for the terrorists’ issues. Although the distinctions are not always clear,
state terrorism generally refers to acts committed by governments either
domestically or abroad, while state- sponsored terrorism refers to support for
nonstate actors that commit terrorist acts.
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Third party
An individual or group that gets involved to help disputants
resolve their problem, typically as mediators, arbitrators, or conciliators.
Third parties can be insiders or outsiders, impartial or partial. Neutrality is
required in some cases, but the ability to put pressure on one or both sides
through carrots or sticks can be useful.
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Time, attitudes toward
Time management in a post-conflict environment is often
affected by attitudes or values not always shared by westerners, such as a need
to cultivate personal relationships before completing a task, a strong belief
in fate or the inability to control one’s destiny, or a general focus on the
past instead of the future. Temporal orientation can also be understood in
terms of the difference betweenmonochronicity and polychronicity—preferring to
do one thing at a time versus engaging in several things simultaneously, which
often involves a blurring of personal and professional space.
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Tracks of diplomacy
Traditionally, the term "diplomacy" referred to
interaction between nation-states. More recently, however, scholars have
delineated several levels of diplomacy. Tracks 1 and 2 are the most frequently
used terms. A composite term is multitrack diplomacy.
Track 1 diplomacy: Official discussions typically involving
high-level political and military leaders and focusing on cease-fires, peace
talks, and treaties and other agreements.
Track 2 diplomacy: Unofficial dialogue and problem-solving
activities aimed at building relationships and encouraging new thinking that
can inform the official process. Track 2 activities typically involve
influential academic, religious, and NGO leaders and other civil society actors
who can interact more freely than high-ranking officials. Some analysts use the
term track 1.5 to denote a situation in which official and non-official actors
work together to resolve conflicts.
Track 3 diplomacy: People-to-people diplomacy undertaken by
individuals and private groups to encourage interaction and understanding
between hostile communities and involving awareness raising and empowerment
within these communities. Normally focused at the grassroots level, this type
of diplomacy often involves organizing meetings and conferences, generating
media exposure, and political and legal advocacy for marginalized people and
communities.
Multitrack diplomacy: A term for operating on several tracks
simultaneously, including official and unofficial conflict resolution efforts,
citizen and scientific exchanges, international business negotiations,
international cultural and athletic activities, and other cooperative efforts.
These efforts could be led by governments, professional organizations,
businesses, churches, media, private citizens, training and educational
institutes, activists, and funders.
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Transitional justice
Efforts to address a legacy of large-scale human rights
abuses that cannot be fully addressed by existing judicial and non-judicial
structures. Government responses have included criminal prosecutions, truth
commissions, reparations, gender justice, security system reform,
memorialization, and other reconciliation efforts
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Translation versus interpreting
Translation refers to the production of a written text in
another language, while interpreting refers to oral or sign-language
communication. Both require skilled professionals, since cultural differences
are reflected in differences in the meaning of seemingly equivalent words
across languages. These differences are often lost in translation, which can
lead to confusion.
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Transnational actors
Actors whose actions cross borders. They include
intergovernmental organizations, multinational corporations, international
nongovernmental organizations, and many religious organizations, as well as
international terrorist networks and criminal networks.
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Transparency
Visibility or accessibility of information regarding
decisionmaking and financial practices, such that stakeholders not only have
access to the decision-making process but also the ability to influence it.
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Treaty
A formal and mutually binding written agreement between two
or more states or other political authorities. Treaties are usually ratified by
the lawmaking authority of the state. The term accord also refers to a formal
agreement, but it sometimes implies a status below that of a treaty. A
convention typically addresses major interstate issues, for example the Geneva
Conventions on the rules of warfare or the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Some conventions have enforcement mechanisms, others do not. The term protocol
is sometimes used to refer to an original draft of a document, the record of an
agreement, or an amendment to a agreement.
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Tribunal
In international law, this term is sometimes used for courts
set up for special purposes, such as the International Criminal Tribunal for
Rwanda or the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, which were established by
the UN Security Council.
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Trigger
An event that initiates or accelerates the outbreak of a
conflict (for example, the assassination of a leader, election fraud, or a
political scandal).
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Truth (and reconciliation) commission or truth and justice
commission
An official body, usually set up by states after periods of
state-perpetrated violence, whose main task is to establish a record of
wrongdoing as part of an overall process of catharsis and reconciliation. Such
commissions are sometimes empowered to grant full or partial amnesty in
exchange for full disclosure, but this practice is rare. Some commissions also
address issues of reparation and rehabilitation. See also Reconciliation.
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Violence
Psychological or physical force exerted for the purpose of
threatening, injuring, damaging, or abusing people or property. In
international relations, violent conflict typically refers to a clash of
political interests between organized groups characterized by a sustained and
large-scale use of force. Structural violencerefers to inequalities built into
the social system, for example, inequalities in income distribution. See also
Conflict and War.
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War
Clausewitz famously described war as the “continuation of
politics by other means.” War is sustained fighting between conventional
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War crimes
Crimes committed during armed conflict in violation of the
laws of war or international humanitarian law, described more fully in the Rome
Statute of the International Criminal Court, article 8. Most war crimes are
perpetrated against noncombatant and civilian populations; they include murder,
torture, deportation, rape, the taking of hostages, and forced labor.
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Watchlist
A list of countries at risk for a specific concern,
maintained by government agencies or nongovernmental organizations as
early-warning mechanisms. There are watchlists for crimes against humanity, for
terrorism, for famines, and for humanitarian emergencies, among others. Some
watchlists focus on individuals or groups suspected of planning crimes, other
lists focus on countries that might be at risk.
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Weapons of mass destruction (WMD)
A term that typically refers to nuclear, biological, or
chemical weapons. Weapons that do not fit into this category are generally
called conventional weapons, regardless of their destructive power.
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Whole-of-government approach
An approach that integrates the collaborative efforts of the
departments and agencies of a government to achieve unity of effort toward a
shared goal. Also known as interagency approach. The terms unity of effort and
unity of purpose are sometimes used to describe cooperation among all actors,
government and otherwise.
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Win-win versus zero-sum
A win-win or positive-sum outcome means everyone wins,
usually through cooperation and joint problem solving. A win-lose or zero-sum
outcome means that one side wins only if the other side loses; it is an
adversarial approach. Alose-lose or negative-sum outcome means all the parties
lose. These terms originated in game theory, which comes from the field of
mathematics and analyzes behavior in specific situations.
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Window of opportunity
A short period of time during which the chances of success
in an endeavor are greatly increased. In negotiations, such an opportunity is
often produced by a change of leadership, an altered military situation, or an
external event that impacts the conflict (for example, after the devastating
2004 tsunami the Aceh rebels were more willing to negotiate with the Indonesian
government).
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World Bank
According to the World Bank web site, the term “World Bank”
refers only to the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)
and the International Development Association (IDA). The IBRD aims to reduce
poverty in middle-income and creditworthy poorer countries, while IDA focuses
on the world's poorest countries. The term “World Bank Group” incorporates
those two institutions plus three closely associated entities: the
International Finance Corporation (IFC), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee
Agency (MIGA), and the International Centre for the Settlement of Investment
Disputes (ICSID).
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